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fi I T S i Kl I ffiil V 



DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF 



SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 




(likeness of leveurikr the astronomer.) 

BY MRS. L. N. FOWLER. 



NEW YORK: 
FOWLEP^S AND WELLS, 

PHRENOLOGICAL CABINET, 131 NASSAU STREET. 
SOLD BY B)OKSKT-LERS GENERALLY. 

1^4S. 




RbWLAHO- ^^ 



FAMILIAR LESSONS 



ASTEONOIY 



DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF 



CHILDREN AND YOUTH 

IN 

SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 
BY MRS. L N. FOAVLER. 

AUTHOR OF "^FAMILIAB LESSONS ON PHYSIOLOGY AND PHEENOLOGY." 

ILLUSTRATED BY WILLIAM HOWLAND. 



'The Heavens declare the glory of God, and tlie Firmament slioweth his handiwork,"' 



STEREOTYPE EDITION. 





NEW YORK: - 

PHRENOLOGICAL CABINET, 131 NASSAU STREET. 

SOLD BY BOOKSELLERS GENERALLY. 

1848.^ 



^•*^ 






^ c 



Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1848, by 

L. N. FOWLER, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court lor the Southern District of New York. 






PREFACE. 



Curiosity is one of the most powerful instincts of our 
nature. 

" It came from heaven ; its power archangels knew 
When this fair globe first rounded to their view; 
When the young sun revealed the glorious scene, 
Where oceans gathered, and where lands grew green." 

In no class in community is this fact more evident than in 
the young, who hunger and thirst after knowledge. " Give ! 
give !" cries the young child, and he is never satiated in 
learning new truths and gaining new ideas. 

If the mind be properly trained and cultivated — and by 
mind is not meant the intellect alone, but the whole mind, 
social, moral and intellectual — there is no disposition to idle- 
ness and vice. 

If parents felt this truism in all its force, they would seek 
to fill the minds of their children with useful and scientific 
knowledge. Of all the sciences, Astronomy has its strongest 
claims on our interest and attention. Even the little infant, 
who cannot lisp its own name, gazes with wonder when he 
beholds the resplendent moon in the firmament. 

As that child advances in years, if he learn and under- 
stand the structure of the moon, its phases, the probabilities 
of its being peopled with intelligent beings, who have their 
identity as well as himself, his infantile joy will be changed 
into admiration and reverence for the Great Being who made 
the moon. Then, as he gazes on the star-spangled firma- 
ment, and is enabled to trace out clusters and groups of 
worlds, and to give unto each their name, as he thinks of 



IV PREFACE. 

Him who made " Orion and the seven stars," his soul will 
expand with pure and holy emotion, and he will be less in- 
clined to frequent haunts of iniquity. 

One who is thoroughly imbued with a love for Astronomy, 
will have no affinity for low and groveling associations. For 
its elementary principle directs us upward, and not down- 
ward. Its tendencies are to elevate and purify, rather than 
degrade and debase. Let the young be taught Astronomy ; 
they can receive the crumbs, and will receive them gladly, 
if they are presented in a clear and familiar manner. 

The following pages have been written with a view to do 
something toward extending a knowledge of this important 
science. Every new book that comes from the press meets 
some new mind, or gains some new reader, that would not 
have been reached through any other medium. These pages 
are therefore scattered, with the earnest hope that they may 
interest and instruct some who would not have gained light 
from any other source. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

DISCOVERY OF ASTRONOMY— DEFINITIONS-THE SUN. 

PAOK* 

The earth but a speck in God's universe. — Astronomy; what it 
is. — Interest felt by aucient nations. — Old systems not as perfect as 
the new ones. — Ptolemaic theory. — Copernican theory. — Advocates 
of Astronomy. — Technical terms. — Diameter. — Poles. — Equator. — 
Meridians.— Parallels.— Tropics.— Zoues. — Ecliptic— Equinoxes. — 
Zodiac. — Horizon. — Luminous and opaque bodies. — All things are 
passing away. — Old opinions respecting the sun. — The sun, as seen 
through the telescope. — Size of the sun. — Shape. — Effect of expos- 
ure to its rays. — Zodiacal light.— Density of the sun.— Its resem- 
blance to other planets. ..... 11 — 23 

CHAPTER H. 

PLANETS-MERCURY— VENUS. 

What planets are. — Thirteen primary planets. — Eighteen second- 
ary planets. — Illustration of the size and distance of the planets. — 
Distance of Mercury from the sun. — Its density. — Time of revolu- 
tion. — Inhabitants at Mercury. — Its light. — Regret of Copernicus. — 
Mountains on Mercury. — Conjunction and opposition of Mercury. — 
Revolution of Venus. — Its distance from the sun. — Venus as evening 
star. — Morning star. — Its brilliancy. — Transit of Venus. — Its twi- 
light. — Its mountains. . . . . . 24 — 31 

CHAPTER III. 

EARTH. 
Why the earth is classified among the planets. — Form of the 
earth ; how proved. — Distance of the earth from the sun. — Reascm 
why this motion is imperceptible. — What is meant by the sun's 
moving from east to west. — The revolution of the earth. — Day and 
night. — The cause of this change. — Inclination of the axis to the 
equator. — Sidereal day. — Solar day. — Mean and apparent time. — 
Equation of time. — Cause of the difference. — Solar year. — Civil 
year. — Old style. — New style. — Leap year. — Dominical letter. — Sea- 
sons. — Effect of the direction of the sun's rays. — Solstices. — Equi- 
noxes. — Refraction. — Atmosphere. — Separation of a ray of light. — 
All colors when combined produce white. — Twilight ; cause. — Why 
the sun and moon appear larger in the horizon. — Difference between 
parallax and refraction. .... - 32—49 



VI CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IV. 

MOON— ECLIPSES— TIDES. 

PAGE. 
Why the moon is of interest to us. — Reverence of the ancients for 
it. — Revolution of the moon. — Distance of the moon. — Its diameter. 
— How computed. — Illustration of Dr. Lardner. — Telescopic appear- 
ance of the moon ; cavities ; its scenery. — Its light without heat or 
cold. — Perigee. — Phases of the moon. — Earth thirteen times as large 
in appearance. — Harvest rnoon. — Eclipse. — Shadow. — What occa- 
sions an eclipse of the moon. — An eclipse of the sun. — Annular 
eclipses ; number in the year. — How regarded by ancient nations. — 
Story of Columbus and the natives. — Eclipse of 1806. — Tides ; by 
what occasioned. — Spring tides. — Neap tides. - 50 — 67 

CHAPTER V. 

MARS— ASTEROIDS. 

Distance of Mars; its revolution. — Conjunction of Mars. — Oppo- 
sition. — Resemblance between Mars and the earth; its red color; 
its atmosphere. — Telescopic appearance of Mars. — Asteroids ; man- 
ner of their discovery. — Difference between the Asteroids and the 
planets. — Meteoric stones. — Lunar theory. — Volcanic theory. — At- 
mospheric theory. — Planetary theory. — Vesta ; by whom discovered. 
— Its light, distance, and revolution. — Comparative size. — The dis- 
covery of Astrea. — Discovery of Juno ; its revolution and distance 
from the sun ; the cause of its color ; its light and heat ; its orbit. — 
Ceres ; w^ho discovered it ; its revolution ; its atmosphere. — The size 
of Pallas ; its atmosphere. — Iris. — Hebe. — Flora. - - 68 — 77 

CHAPTER VI. 

JUPITER— SATURN. 

The appearance of Jupiter ; its revolution ; uniformity of season ; 
how long it would take to reach it ; telescopic appearance. — The na- 
ture of Jupiter's belts ; four moons. — Light progressive. — Saturn the 
most interesting of the planets ; its size and distance ; the degree of 
light and heat. — Belts of Saturn. — Nature of the rings ; time in 
which they revolve. — Rings not always visible. — Their use and size. 
— Feelings of wonder and surprise. — Description of Saturn's rings 
by Herschel. — All nature invested with life.— Scenery at Saturn. 78—38 

CHAPTER VH. 

HERSCHEL— NEPTUNE. 

Discovery of Herschel ; its distance from the sun ; time of revo- 
lution. — Appearance of the sun to an inhabitant of Herschel. — Six 



CONTENTS. VII 

PAGE. 

satellites; their peculiarities. — Saturn thought to be the most re- 
mote. — The investigations of Leverrier. — Law of distances of the 
planets. — Investigations of Mr. Adams. — Opinion respecting Nep- 
tune. — Planets still undiscovered. - - . - 89 — 93 



CHAPTER Vm. 

COMETS. 
How regarded by the ancients. — Division of comets. — Nucleus. — 
Envelope. — Train or tail. — No certain knowledge in reference to 
their nature. — Comets of 1770, 1680, 1811. — These comets pre- 
dicted. — Halley's comet. — Superstitions of the people. — Biela's com- 
et. — Professor Olmsted's opinion. — Encke's comet. — Pringle's com- 
et. — Light of the comets. — Their mission. — All things subject to law. 
— Comets an exception to the rule. ... 94 — 102 

CHAPTER IX. 

FIXED STARS. 
The delight of a German in revisiting his native laud. — Fixed 
stars ; number, distance. — Sirius equal to fourteen suns. — How stars 
are distinguished, from the planets. — Magnitudes. — Variable stars. — 
Temporary stars. — Beautiful star in Cassiopea. — Creation and de- 
struction of stars. — Anxiety felt respecting our earth. — Double stars. 
— Binary stars. — Stars of different colors. — Plurality of worlds. — 
Design of Galileo. 103—110 

' CHAPTER X. 

CONSTELLATIONS. 
Ideas of La Place respecting constellations. — Their names sym- 
bolical. — Religion of the ancient Egyptians. — How the stars are 
named. — Catalogues of the stars. — Division of the firmament. — Con- 
stellations of the zodiac. — Of the northern hemisphere. — Southern 
hemisphere. — llrsa Major. — Dipper ; remarkable circumstance re- 
specting it. — Pointers. — Important to the mariners. — Ursa Minor. — 
Small Dipper. — By whom invented. — Draco. — Aberration of light. 
— Where situated. — Cepheus. — How distinguished. — Cepheus, as a 
king. — Argonautic expedition. — Cassiopea. — How distinguished. — 
History of the queen. — Andromeda ; how formed. — Anecdote of 
Andromeda. — Perseus ; how represented. — The Gorgons. — Anec- 
dote of Perseus. — Algenib. — Algol. — Pleiades. — Hyades. — Repre- 
sentation of Taurus. — Who Orion was. — Ell or Yard. — Orion as a 
hunter. — When Orion is visible. — Lepus. — Canis Major. — Sirius. — 
Connection of Sirius with the river Nile. — Dog-days. — Columba. — 
Noah's Dove. — Cauis Minor; as forerunner of Sirius. — Bootes. — 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Arctums. — Mazzaroth. — Chara and Asterion. — Berenice's Hair. — 
Anecdote of the queen. — Elevating tendency of this science. Ill — 134 

CHAPTER XI. 

NEBULA. 

Galaxy or Milky Way. — Remarkable nebula in the Pleiades.— 
Andromeda. — Orion. — Nebulae stars. — Annular nebulae. — Planetary 
nebulae. — Shooting stars ; their nature. — Remarkable shower of me- 
teors in the United States. — Theory of Professor Olmsted. — Aurora 
Borealis. — Effect of atmospheric electricity. — Merry dancers. 135 — 141 

CHAPTER XH. 

ATTRACTION— FORCE OF GRAVITY. 

The law of attraction not limited. — Principle discovered by Sir 
Isaac Newton — Centripetal force.— Centrifugal force. - 142 — 144 

CHAPTER XIII. 

TELESCOPES. 

Aid of the telescope. — Refracting and reflecting telescope. — Object- 
glass. — Eye-glass.— Speculum. — On what the magnifying power of 
telescopes depends. — Focus. — Retina — Construction of the telescope. 
— Difficulties in their construction. — Achromatic lens. — Want of light. 
— Telescope of Herschel. — Of Lord Rosse. — One under the care of 
Struve. — One at Dorpat. — Speculum made of metal. — Description of 
the telescope in Cincinnati. — Finder. — Corner-stone laid by John 
Quincy Adams. ..--., 145 — 149 

CHAPTER XIV. 

DIFFERENT ASTRONOMERS. 

Copernicus. — His early inclinations. — His investigations of the old 
theory. — The opposition of the Roman Church. — Tribute to his 
memory. — Galileo ; his early studies. — His discoveries as a mathe- 
matician. — Invention of the telescope. — Improvements in it. — Course 
pursued by the Inquisition. — His renunciation of his theories. — His 
remains honored. — Sir Isaac Newton. — Limited education. — De- 
signed for a farmer. — Anecdote of his dog Diamond. — Sir William 
Herschel. — His early proficiency in music. — Discovery of the planet 
Herschel. — His table of stars. — Hon. Walter Folger. — His early ad- 
vantages. — Astronomical clock. — Its uses. — Construction of a tele- 
scope. — An example of perseverance and energy. — Professor Olm- 
sted.— His birth and childhood. — His education. — As Professor of 
Chemistry. — As a geologist. — As Professor of Mathematics and Phi- 
losophy. — His publications. - - - 150 — 165 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE. 

1. Meridians, -.----.. ---15 

2. Parallels, 16 

3. Tropics, • - - - IG 

4. Zones, --.^------"l? 

5. Sun's Spots, 20 

6. Relative size of the Planets, _----- 25 

7. Relative situation of the Planets, 27 

8. Telescopic appearance of Venus, - - - - - 31 

9. Convexity of the earth, --- 33 

10. Seasons — Day and Night, ------- 41 

11. Refraction, 46 

12. Telescopic appearance of the Moon, ----- 53 

13. Phases of the Moon, 56 

14. Eclipse of the Moon, - - 59 

15. '' " Sun, - - 59 

16. Annular Eclipse, - - - - - - - - #' 60 

17. Spring Tides, 65 

18. Neap Tides, 66 

19. Conjunction and opposition of Mars, 69 

20. Telescopic appearance of Mars, . . . - . 70 

21. Jupiter's Belts, 79 

22. Saturn with his Rings, 84 

23. Comets, - - 97 

24. Ursa Major, - - 115 

25. Ursa Minor, 117 

26. Cepheus, 119 

27. Cassiopea, --.- 120 

28. Andromeda, „ - - - 122 

29. Perseus, 123 

30. Taurus, 125 

31. Orion, - - 127 

32. Canis Major, - - . 129 

33. Canis Minor, 131 

34. Bootes and Berenice's Hair, r - ■? - " _ - 133 



X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

35 Nebulse, - 137 

3G. The Telescope, - 144 

37. Copeniicus, -- --_._ . 151 

38. Galileo, ... 152 

39. Sir Isaac Newton, 156 

40. Sir William Herschel, 158 

41. Hon. Walter Folger, - - 160 

42. Professor Olmsted, - 163 




DISCOVERY OF ASTRONOMY— DEFINITIONS— THE SUxN. 



1. My dear young friends, this is a beautiful world in 
which we live. Its surface is diversified by mountains, 
valleys, plains, rivers, and oceans. We have forests 
and shady groves, whose green and waving foliage ap- 
parently ascends to heaven, and the cloud-capped moun- 
tain, emitting from its summit fire and lava ; we have 
sparkling streamlets, whose crystal waters meander 
through mossy meadows, fragrant with rich and velvet 
flowers ; we have rocks, fields, and warbling songsters ; 
each and all of which are but so many messengers or 
evidences of the goodness of the Creator. He caused 
each tiny floweret to put forth its tender leaves, to bud, 
expand, and blossom, to call forth meet incense of praise 
and gratitude, 

2. We might spend many delightful hours in enumer- 
ating and describing the beauties of our low^er sphere 
with profit ; but it is my present purpose to direct your 
thoughts to the worlds and systems of worlds which 
stud the canopy above us. We shall then see, that as 
a family is but one among the numerous groups which 

What are the subjects of chapter first ? 1, In what way is the surface 
pi' the world diversified ? What ipessengers remind us of the goodness 
of our Creator*? For what purpose are all things created ? 2. To what 
will the thoughts be directed ? What CQiKlusion shall we form ? 



12 DISCOVERY OF ASTRONOMY. 

compose society, so our earth is but a speck in the 
whole universe of God. 

3. You have all doubtless gazed with delight at the 
little twinkling, twinkling stars, and often wondered 
what they are, what their use is, who made them, etc. 
They are indeed very beautiful, and the more so, be- 
cause they are all arranged in perfect order and sys- 
tem, and their motions are all regulated by fixed and 
certain laws. 

The science which treats of all these stars is called 
Astronomy, which means, relating to the stars. 

4. As remote in the annals of history as the flood — 
even three hundred and fifty years before the flood, 
over two thousand years before the Christian era — the 
attention of different nations was directed to the study 
of Astronomy ; especially the Chaldean, Egyptian, and 
Grecian nations. It is thought that in past ages of the 
world, this science was carried to a great degree of 
perfection, and that many of the great principles then 
discovered and disseminated are now lost, or have been 
transmitted in a feeble manner. 

5. Egypt, that great fountain-head of science, philos- 
ophy, literature, and the arts, was one of the early 
nations that patronized this science, 

6. The Chinese have records of the motions of the 
planets one hundred years before the flood, 

7. When Alexander captured Babylon, many astro- 
nomical observations were found, some of which had 

3. What are sources of delight ? What constitutes their chief attrac- 
tion ? What science treats of the stars ? What is Astronomy ? 4. How 
early was the attention directed to Astronomy ? How do the present 
and past ages compare, in this respect ? 5. What is said of the interest of 
the nation of Egypt? 6. What is said of the Chinese ? 7. How is it 
known that the early people of Babylon were interested in this science ? 



THE COPERNICAN SYSTEM. J3 

been computed nearly two thousand years previous to 
that time. 

8. The Grecians were much interested in the study 
of the stars. Thales, a philosopher in Miletus, pre- 
dicted an eclipse which occurred six hundred and ten 
years before Christ. 

9. Although the ancient philosophers and^ astrono- 
mers watched earnestly the starry heavens— though 
they manifested an exceeding great interest and desire 
to learn more of the worlds which floated before their 
vision in the blue expanse, yet their ideas and systems 
were crude and vague, and it remained for those in 
more modern times to systematize, arrange, and perfect. 

10. Formerly, many theories prevailed. One was 
called the Ptolemaic, because Ptolemy, an Egyptian 
philosopher, maintained that the earth was the centre 
of the whole solar system, and was at rest, or station- 
ary, while the sun and all the planets revolved around 
■it. This theory w^as believed for many ages, but was 
finally discarded. 

11. Copernicus, on the contrary, declared that the 
sun was the centre of the solar system, and that the 
earth and all the other planets revolved around it. 
This theory was at first supposed to be very erroneous, 
and Copernicus was threatened with banishment, and 
even death, if he did not deny his belief in it ; but, as 
truth is mighty and will prevail, and as ridicule and per- 

8. What other nation evmced an interest ? What did Thales predict? 
9. What did the ancient philosophers do ? What remained for those in 
modern times'? 10. V/hat was the Ptolemaic theory? Why was it so 
called ? What was the fate of this theory ? 11. What is the Copernican 
theory 1 How was this theory received ? With what was Copernicus 
threatened ? What is the influence of truth ? What are the effects of 
ridicule and persecution ? 

2 



14 DEFINITIONS. 

secution have tried in vain to arrest the progress of any 
newly-discovered science, so the principles of Astrono- 
my are now universally disseminated, and the Coperni- 
can system is the one that is believed to be the true one. 
12. Since the fifteenth century, there have been many 
advocates and discoverers in Astronomy; among them, 
the most distinguished are Copernicus, Galileo, Keplar, 
Tycho Brahe, Newton, Dr. Nichols, and the two Her- 
schels, in the old country. In our own land, we have 
Professor Mitchell, in Cincinnati ; Professor Olm.sted, 
Hon. Walter Folger, Hon. William Mitchell, besides 
many others. A short sketch of some of these may be 
found in the latter part of this work. 

DEFINITIONS. 

1. In every science there are many terms used pecul- 
iar to that science. These are called technfcal terms, 
and require an explanation before they are understood. 

2. When we speak of the vertebrse of the spine, the. 
ribs, or the heart, we use the technical terms which 
belong to the science of Physiology. 

3. When we call the leaves of a flower the petals, 
the slender threads inside of it the stamens and pistils, 
we use the technical terms which belong to Botany- 

4. When we speak of the organs of the brain, such 
as Combativeness, Self-Esteem, and Inhabitiveness, we 
use the technical terms which belong to Phrenology, 

5. The more we are acquainted with the different 
sciences, the more evident this will appear. In Astron- 

11. In what way did they affect the science of Astronomy ? 12. Name 
some of the most distinguished astronomers of the old world. Name some 
in our own country. 1. What are there in every science ? What are 
Ihey called ? 2. What are some of the technical terras of Physiology ? 
3. Botany? 4. Phrenology? 



DEGREES. 



15 



omy, as in all other branches of knowledge, there are 
many terms or names which require to be explained. 
These must not only be learned, but remembered, so 
that when they are again mentioned, you will be able 
to understand them. 

6. Axis, or diameter, is an imaginary straight line 
passing from north to south, through the centre of the 
earth. 

7. The Poles are the ends or extremities of this line, 
and are ninety degrees distant from the centre. One is 
called the North Pole, the other the South Pole. 

8. The EauATOR is a circle drawn around the earth, 
from west to east, which passes through the centre at 
right angles with the diameter. It divides the earth 
into two half-circles, which are called hemispheres. 
Every circle is divided into three hundred and sixty 
parts, called degrees. If the circle be small, there are 
just as many degrees, but each one is smaller. 

9. Meridians are circles which cross the Equator 
and pass through the Poles from north to south, as you 
will see in the cut. 




meridians. 



5. Does this apply to Astronomy? Why should these be remem- 
bered ? 6. What is the axis, or diameter ? What is its direction to the 
Equator? 7. What are the poles? 8. What is the Equator? Into 
what does the Equator divide the earth "? What are degrees? Do 
these vary in size ? 9. What are meridians ? 



16 DEFINITIONS. 

10. Parallels of Latitude are small circles paral- 
lel to the Equator, as represented in the cut. The 
LATITUDE of any place is its distance north or south 
from the Equator. 




PARALLELS. 



11. The LONGITUDE of a place is its distance from 
some standard meridian, reckoned on the Equator. 
The meridian generally taken as a standard, is that of 
Greenwich, near London. 

12. Tropics are parallels of latitude that pass around 
the earth, twenty-three and one half degrees from the 
Equator. The one north of the Equator is called the 
Tropic of Cancer. The one south of the Equator is 
called the Tropic of Capricorn. The following cut 
represents these lines. 




10. What are parallels of latitude ? What is meant by the latitude of 
a place ? 11. What is the longitude of a place ? What meridian is gen- 
erally used as a standard? 12. What are the tropics? What is the 
Tropic of Cancer ? What tropic lies south of the Equator ? 



ZONES. 17 

13. There are five Zones. Zones are divisions which 
extend betv^een the poles and the tropics. The Torrid 
Zone lies between the two tropics. The Temperate 
Zones are between the tropics and polar circles. The 
one north of the Equator is called the North Temper- 
ate Zone ; the one south of the Equator, the South 
Temperate Zone. The Frigid Zones lie between the 
poles and polar circles. The one around the North 
Pole is the North Frigid Zone, and the other around 
the South Pole is the South Frigid Zone. These di- 
visions are represented in the following cut. 

North Pole. 




14. The Ecliptic is the path in the heavens which 
the earth makes in her annual revolution around the 
sun, or which the sun appears to make. It is called 
ecliptic, because eclipses occur when the moon is in or 
near this apparent path. 

The diameter of the earth does not lie at right angles 
with the Ecliptic, but is turned out, or inclined about 

13. What are zones ? How many are there ? Which is the Torrid 
Zone ? Which are the Temperate Zones ? How many and what are 
they ? How many of the Frigid Zones are there, and where are they 
situated? 14. What is the Ecliptic? Why is it called the Ecliptic? 
How is the axis of the earth situated 7 
2* 



18 DEFINITIONS. 

twenty-three and a half degrees. The Equator is 
turned out in the same direction the same number of 
degrees, in order to agree with the Ecliptic. 

15. The EauiNoxES, or EaumocTiAL Points, are the 
intersection of the Ecliptic and the Equator, or the 
points where the two circles cross each other. The 
VERNAL (which means spring) equinox is the time when 
the path of the sun passes the Equator in returning 
northward. In reality, it is the earth which moves, in- 
stead of the sun, which appears to us to move. The 
VERNAL EauiNOx is the twenty-first of March. The time 
when the sun crosses the Equator, in going south, is the 
AUTUMNAL EauiNox. This takes place about the twenty- 
second of September. At these two seasons of the 
year, we always expect, and have, storms. If we no- 
tice particularly the nature of these storms — their dura- 
tion, violence, whether or not they are accompanied by 
wind — we shall be able to a-scertain or predict the nature 
of all the succeeding storms for the next six months ; 
for they are generally similar, in almost every respect. 

16. The Zodiac is an imaginary belt, or broad circle, 
which extends eight degrees each side of the Ecliptic. 
It is therefore sixteen degrees wide. The Zodiac is di- 
vided into twelve equal parts, called the signs of the Zo- 
diac. These names will be given in another part of this 
work. The planets are never seen out of the Zodiac. 

17. Horizon is a circle which divides the earth into 

14. What is said of the Equator? 15. What are the equinoxes? 
What is the vernal equinox ? Does the sun really move ? When does 
the vernal equinox occur ? What is meant by the autumnal equinox ? 
When does this occur ? What takes place at these seasons ? W^hy should 
we notice these storms ? 16. What is the Zodiac? What is its width ? 
What are the signs of the Zodiac ? What are situated in these borders ? 
17. What is the horizon ? 



LUMINOUS AND OPAaUE BODIES. 19 

upper and lower hemispheres. The sensible horizon is 
a circle where the earth and sky appear to meet. 

18. Zenith is a point immediately over om^ heads. 

19. Nadir is a point directly under our feet. 

20. Solstices are the two points of the Ecliptic 
which are most distant from the Equator. The sum- 
mer solstice takes place about the twenty-second of 
June ; the winter solstice occurs about the twenty- 
second of December. 

21. The orbit of a planet is the circle in which it 
moves. 

22. The disc is the face or surface of the planet. 

23. An ellipse is a long circle, or a circle flattened 
at two ends. 

24. Node. The point where the moon's orbit crosses 
the Ecliptic is called its node. 

25. The heavenly bodies are divided into two classes 
— LUMINOUS and oPAauE. 

26. Luminous bodies are such as shine by their own 
light, without reference to any other body, as the sun, 
and fixed stars. 

27. OpAauE bodies are dark, and are seen only when 
light from some other body shines on them. The 
earth, moon, and planets are opaque bodies. 

28. Telescope. The telescope is an instrument 
through which the heavenly bodies, which cannot be 
seen by the naked eye, are visible. 

17. What is the sensible horizon ? 18. What is the Zenith ? 19. What 
is the Nadir ? 20. What are the Solstices 1 When do they occur ? 
21. What is the orbit of a planet? 22. What is the disc? 23. What 
is an ellipse? 24. What is the Node ? 25. What are the divisions of 
heavenly bodies? 26. What are luminous bodies? 27. What are 
opaque bodies ? What are examples of luminous and opaque bodies? 
28. What is the use of the telescope ? 



20 THE SUN. 

THE SUN. 

1. The sun is the centre of the solar system. From 
age to age it has dispensed its rays of hght and heat 
to all the planets, regulated their motions, and affected 
their conditions. 

2. Change and " passing away " are stamped on all 
things earthly, yet the sun, as far as power and influ- 
ence are concerned, has not diminished. The loftiest 
monuments moulder and crumble to dust. The most 
huge rocks on the earth are worn away by the swelling 
tide which beats against their columns, and the idea is 
not improbable that our whole earth will pass away ; 
but the sun, mighty and powerful, still continues to re- 
volve around the throne of that Being who rules the 
universe. 

3. It was formerly supposed that the sun was a vast 
globe of fire ; but it is now generally believed that the 
sun is an opaque or dark body, surrounded by an exten- 



THE SUN S SPOTS. 



1. What is the centre of the solar system ? What is said of its influ- 
ence *? 2. With what is everything stamped? Do these principles ex- 
tend to the sun ? What changes do we see in nature ? What does 
the sun continue to do? 3. What was an early theory respecting the 
sun ? What is now believed ? 



THE sun's spots. 21 

sive atmosphere, filled with luminous clouds of suffi- 
cient brightness to produce light and heat. 

4. When the sun is viewed through a telescope, dark 
spots are visible on its face, or disc, as represented by 
the cut. 

These spots are occasioned by the thinness of the 
atmosphere in different parts, so that portions of the 
sun's surface can be seen through it. These spots 
change their positions ; they sometimes appear on one 
side, and then on the other. By means of this change, 
it has been ascertained that the sun turns on its axis 
from west to east in about twenty-five days. 

These spots are generally small, but frequently one 
hundred are seen together in one group, and sometimes 
they are many times larger than our earth. 

5. The size of the sun is enormous. It is the largest 
of all the known heavenly bodies, and is eight hundred 
thousand miles in diameter. It is fourteen hundred 
thousand times as large as the earth ; so that the earth, 
which appears inconceivably great to our minds, is in 
reality but a speck, or as a grain of sand on the sea- 
shore, when compared with this large body, which is 
continually shedding its light on us, causing vegetation 
to grow, and rendering the earth a fit and pleasant 
abode for mankind. Without the presence of the sun, 
we should be in complete darkness, with no heat, in an 
eternal night of coldness. 

It has been calculated that it would require one hun- 

4. How does the sun appear, when it is viewed through a telescope 1 
What occasions these spots? What is said of their position? What 
has been ascertained by means of these spots ? What is said of the size 
of the spots? 5. What is the size of the sun? What is its diameter? 
What is its size, compared with that of the earth ? What is the earth, 
in reality ? What advantages arise from the presence of the sun ? 



22 TFIE SUN. 

dred and twelve bodies like the earth, if laid side by 
side, to reach across the diameter of the sun. 

6. A query may arise ; why does not the sun, when- 
it is of such immense size, fill our atmosphere, and 
crowd out the innumerable stars which we see above 
us ? The reason is, that it is ninety-five millions of 
miles far away in the depths of space ; so distant, that, 
according to one writer, the swiftest steamboat, at the 
rate of two hundred miles per day, could not reach it 
from the earth in thirteen hundred years. If a person 
should travel one hundred miles per day, it would take 
him nearly eighty years to cross the sun's equator 
while it w^ould not require one year to travel around 
the earth, at the same rate. 

7. The sun is round. Its figure is not a perfect 
circle, but is elongated somewhat as an egg would ap- 
pear, if both of its ends were of the same size. It is 
called an ellipse. 

8. An exposure to the rays of the sun, without suf- 
ficient exercise to create perspiration, will produce 
sickness ; but the same exposure to the sun, with ex- 
ercise, will not be at all injurious. If a person sleep 
exposed to the sun, he will awake in great perspiration, 
and possibly may not live. But if the same person dig 
or use his muscles for the same length of time, he will 
perspire ten times as much, and be very well. It is a 
recorded fact, that not only the direct rays of the sun, 
but the heat of the atmosphere, produce an abundance 

5. How does the size of the diameter of the sun compare with that of 
the earth 7 C. What question do many ask? What is the cause of 
the fact ? How long would it require a steamboat to sail to reach the 
sun? At what rate must an individual travel? 7. What is the shape 
of the sun ? Is its figure a perfect circle ? What is it called ? 8. What 
is the effect of exposure to the sun without exercise 1 With exorcise ? 



THE DENSITY OF THE SUN. 23 

of bile in the stomach, to remove which requires pow- 
erful exercise. 

9. There is a faint light which is seen in certain sea- 
sons of the year, following the course of the sun, after 
twilight in the evening, or before his appearance in the 
morning. This is called the zodiacal light. It is 
seen during the months of October, November, and 
December. The true nature and cause of it are not 
known. It was thought to be the atmosphere of the 
sun ; but this light extends farther than the atmosphere 
of the sun could reach. 

10. The density or weight of the sun is one fourth 
as great as that of the earth, and a little heavier than 
water. Yet the quantity of matter in the sun is over 
three hundred and fifty thousand times as great as in 
the earth. 

11. The sun resembles the other globes of the solar 
system, and may have inhabitants whose constitutions 
are peculiarly adapted to the extreme heat of its cli- 
mate. Dr. Herschel thinks they enjoy the most delight- 
ful scenery ; that the light of the sun is eternal, as well 
as its seasons, and tha.t it offers one of the most de- 
lightful habitations for intelligent beings which can be 
conceived. 

8. Explain the cause of this. 9. What is the zodiacal light'? When 
13 it visible ? What causes it ? Why is it not caused by the atmosphere 
of the sun "? 10. What is the density of the sun ? What is the quantity 
of matter in the sun ? 11. To what peculiarity may the sun be adapted ? 
Why ? What is Dr. Herschel's idea respecting these things 1 



24 PLANETS. 

CHAPTER II. 

PLANETS— MERCURY, VENUS. 

1. An unknown number of dark bodies revolve 
around the sun, which are called planets. The word 
for planet, in the Greek language, means wanderer ; 
and this term is applied to these bodies because they 
change their positions in the heavens, while the stars 
are fixed, and maintain the same relative place. 

2. Those planets which revolve only around the sun, 
are called primary planets and comets. Those which 
revolve around a primary planet at the same time that 
they are revolving around the sun, are called second- 
ary PLANETS, moons, OT SATELLITES. 

3. All of these planets shine by light reflected from 
the sun. They are readily distinguished from the stars, 
because their light is steady, while the stars appear to 
twinkle. 

4. There are thirteen primary planets, which are 
called Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Vesta, Astrea, 
Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel or Ura- 
nus, Leverrier or Neptune. Very recent observations 
have added Iris, Hebe, and Flora to this hst. But it is 
not fully decided that these are correct. 

What is the subject of chapter second? 1. What revolves around the 
Bun ? What does the word planet mean ? Why are these bodies so 
called ? 2. What are primaiy planets ? What are secondary planets ? 
What other names do these have ? 3. What is the light of the planets? 
In what way are they distinguished from the stars ? 4. How many 
primary planets are there ? Name them. What new ones have been 
recently added ? -.■ 



SECONDARY PLANETS. 



25 



5. There are eighteen secondary planets, or moons. 
The earth has one moon, Jupiter has fom- moons, 
Saturn seven, and Herschel six. 

6. Those primary planets that are more remote from 
the sun than the earth is, are called superior planets. 




HELATIYE SIZE OF THE PLANETS. 



5. How many secondary planets are there ? Name them. 6. What 
are superior planets ? 

3 



26 PLANETS. 

Those that are nearer the sun than the earth, are called 
INFERIOR. Mercury and Venus are inferior planets. 
Mars, Vesta, Astrea, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, Sat- 
urn, Herschel, and Neptune, are superior. 

7. The planets differ from each other greatly, in their 
distances from the sun, their size or magnitude, the 
number of satellites by which they are attended, their 
time of revolving around the sun and on their own 
axes, and their density. 

8. Sir John Herschel describes the difference of the 
size and distance of the planets in the following plain 
and simple manner : Suppose the sun is represented by 
a globe two feet in diameter ; then, eighty-two feet dis- 
tant, put down a grain of mustard-seed, and you have 
the size and place of Mercury, which point is generally 
immersed in the sun's rays. At the distance of one 
hundred and forty-two feet, lay down a pea, and it 
will represent Venus, the morning and evening star. 
Two hundred and fifteen feet from the globe place 
another pea, a grain larger than the last, and we have 
the earth. A large pin's head, at the distance of 
three hundred and twenty-seven feet, represents Mars. 
About five hundred feet from the sun, Vesta, Astrea, 
Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, appear as small grains of sand. 
Jupiter is represented by a moderate-sized orange, 
about one quarter of a mile distant ; Saturn, with his 
ring, by a small orange, at the distance of two fifths 
of a mile ; Herschel, by a full-sized cherry, at about 



6. What are inferior planets? Name the superior planets. The inferior 
planets. 7. In what do the planets differ? 8. Who has described 
the size and distance of the planets 1 How does he represent the sun ? 
Mercury ? Venus ? Earth ? Mars ? Asteroids ? Jupiter 1 Saturn ? 
Herschel ? 



RELATIVE SITUATION OF THE PLANETS. 



27 



three fourths of a mile distant. Neptune would be 
about a mile and a half distant. 

The following cut illustrates the situation of the 
planets with respect to each other, and to the sun. 
The centre is the sun, the first circle is Mercury, the 
next Venus, and so on ; the last, or most outward, 
represents Neptune, whose orbit is a circle, half of 
which is drawn. 

ISieptune 



-^ llerscbel 



/ 




\ ^- •■ 



RELATIVE SITUATION OF THE PLANETS. 



8. How does he represent Neptune "? Explain the cut ? 



28 PLANETS. 

MERCURY. 

1. The nearest planet to the sun is Mercury. It is 
the smallest in size of all the planets. It revolves 
around the sun at the distance of thirty-seven millions 
of miles, in about three months. So that while the 
earth is revolving once around the sun, Mercury re- 
volves four times. If their year js computed in the 
same manner as that of ours on the earth, they would 
have four years while we had one. It turns on its axis 
once in twenty-four hours. 

2. Mercury is the most dense of the planets, and re- 
ceives seven tiuies as much light and heat from the 
sun as the earth. Water there, would pass off into 
steam and vapor. 

3. It may appear incredible to suppose that this 
planet is inhabited. Certainly, creatures like those 
whom God has placed on the earth, could not endure 
the intensity of the light and heat there enjoyed ; but 
it is just as reasonable to suppose that there are beings 
dwelling on the planet Mercury, whose capacities are 
enlarged and peculiarly fitted to enjoy its climate, as 
to believe that some of God's creatures live in the 
Frigid Zones of the earth, while others bask under the 
sunshine and heat of the tropical climate of the Torrid 
Zone. 

4. Mercury emits a white light, but being so near 

1. Which is the nearest planet to the sun ? What is its size ? What is 
its distance from the sun ? What is the time of its revolution 1 What is 
said of the year at the earth and Mercury? In what time does it revolve 
on its axis ? 2. What is the density of Mercury ? What is the degree 
of its light and heat? What would be the effect on water? 3. What 
idea appears incredible to us ? What is quite evident ? What is a very 
reasonable supposition ? 4. What is the color of the light of Mercury? 



MOUNTAIXS OF MERCURY. 29 

the sun, cannot be seen long at a time, and then only 
at twilight. It is never seen more than twenty-eight 
degrees from the sun. 

It is said that Copernicus, even on his death-bed, 
regretted very much that he had never seen the planet 
Mercury. 

5. It revolves on its axis once in twenty-four hours, 
so that a day, at the planet Mercury, is of the same 
length as at the earth. 

6. Mr. Schroeter discovered mountains on its sur- 
face, one of which w^as ten miles in height. When 
Mercury is seen through a telescope, it presents all the 
different appearances and changes of the moon. This 
fact proves that Mercury is a dark body ; for only that 
side is light which is turned toward the sun. Some- 
times Mercury passes over the face of the sun, or be- 
tween us and the sun ; it is then called the transit of 
Mercury. 

7. When Mercury is in the same part of the heavens 
with the sun, it is said to be in conjunction with the 
sun. When it is in the opposite part, it is said to be in 
OPPOSITION to the sun. 

VENUS. 

1. The second planet from the sun is Venus. This is 
a bright and beautiful star, the most brilliant in our 

4. Why is it so seldom seen ? How far is it seen from the sunl What 
was a regret of Copernicus? 5. In what time does it revolve on its 
axis ? How long is one of Mercury's days ? 6. What did Mr. Schroeter 
discover on its surface ? What was the height of one ? How does Mer- 
cury appear, through a telescope ? What does this prove ? What is the 
transit of Mercury ? 7. When is Mercury in conjunction with the sun ? 
Opposition ? 1. What is the second planet from the sun ? Why is this, 
an interesting body ? 

3* 



30 PLANETS. 

firmament. This planet revolves on its axis once in 
twenty-four hours. It is sixty-eight millions of miles 
from the sun, and completes this revolution in about 
seven months, so that at the planet Venus, they have 
nearly two years to our one. 

2. Venus is never seen forty-eight degrees from the 
sun ; hence it is visible in the west only about three 
hours after sunset, or in the east, three hours before 
sunrise. When it is first visible, it is seen a few mo- 
ments after sunset, and then soon sets. In a few even- 
ings it is seen farther from the sun, until it reaches its 
greatest distance, when we see it for several hours. It 
is then called Hesperus, or evening star. After being 
visible for about nine months, it disappears, and is seen 
in the morning, when it is called Phosphorus, or morning 
star. 

3. The ancient philosophers supposed that there 
were two distinct stars, but they finally discovered that 
they were the same. 

4. Venus is sometimes so brilliant that she casts a 
shadow, and is then said to be equal to twenty of the 
brightest stars. The reason that Venus does not ap- 
pear brighter when she is near the earth, as at her 
greatest distance, is, that her dark side is turned toward 
the earth. Were it not the case, Venus would appear 
twenty-five times as brilliant as she now does. 

l.What is the time of its revolution on its axis ? What is its distance 
from the sun ? What is the time of its yearly revolution ? What is the 
length of their year? 2. How long is it visible in the w^est or easti Why 
is it not seen longer ? Describe its appearance. What is it called ? How 
long is it visible ? What is the morning star called ? 3. What did the an- 
cients suppose, respecting this star ? Was this correct ? 4. What is said 
of the brilliancy of this planet ? Why does not Venus appear brighter, 
when near the earth ? How brilliant would Venus appear, othervi^ise ? 



VENUS. 



31 



5. When Venus passes over the sun's disc, it is 
called the transit of Venus. Many think that Venus 
has a moon revolving around her, as large as our own 
moon, but there is no certainty as to the correctness of 
their surmises. 

6. It is supposed that Venus has an atmosphere, be- 
cause there are appearances of twilight. In another 
chapter, the relation between the tv/o will be described. 




TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE OF VENUS. 

7. Very high mountains, besides dark spots, hills, 
and valleys, have been discovered to diversify the sur- 
face of Venus. 



6. What is the transit of Venus ? What is said respecting the moon 
of Venus? 6. What is said of the atmosphere of Venus? 7. What 
have been discovered on the surface of Venus 1 



32 . EARTH. 



CHAPTER III. 

EARTH. 

1. It may appear singular that the earth is classified 
among the stars and planets ; for to us the earth ap- 
pears to be stationary, while the planets revolve in 
their accustomed orbits, and change their places in the 
heavens. But the motions and movements of the earth 
are the more interesting, as we are participants in the 
changes which are produced by her revolutions, and 
are sensibly affected by them. 

2. The form of the earth is nearly round, or spheri- 
cal. That such is the case, has been proved in the fol- 
lowing conclusive ways : 

Firstly, because all the other planets are round ; 
and, as there is a general relation between them in all 
other respects, it is but right to conclude that the simi- 
larity holds good in regard to their form. 

Secondly, because the earth casts a round shadow 
on the moon, in an eclipse. 

Thirdly, it has been sailed around. A Portuguese 
embarked from Spain, with a fleet of four vessels, and 
sailed in a westerly direction. After three years, one 
of the vessels reached the point near which they started. 
Many other individuals have also performed the same 
voyage. 

What is the subject of chapter third? 1. With what is the earth 
classified ? Why does this appear singular to us ? Why are the motions 
of the earth more interesting? 2. What is the form of the earth? 
What is the first reason why the earth is globular ? Second ? Third ? 



CONVEXITY OF THE EARTH. 



33 



Fourthly, we see the tops of masts, the steeples of 
churches, and the highest parts of all distant objects, 
first, as will be evident in the following cut. 




CONVEXITY OF THE EARTH. 

Fifthly, by actual observation and measurements 
which astronomers have made, to find the distance from 
the centre of the earth to various places on its surface. 
These are found to be nearly equal. 

3. The earth is ninety-five millions of miles from the 
sun, and its motion is about sixty-eight thousand miles 
m an hour. Mountains, valleys, seas, and rivers are 
hurried onward with impetuous force, moving, moving, 

2. What is the ibiirth reason why the earth is globular? Fifth? 
3. What is the earth's distance from the sun 1 What is tlie speed of its 
motion ? What are carried round with it 1 



34 EARTH. 

without any cessation, from month to month, and from 
year to year. 

4. The reason why this remarkably swift motion is 
not perceptible to our senses, is, that every thing par- 
takes of it, and maintains its relative place. If a ball 
be thrown into the air, it is very easy for us to per- 
ceive the velocity with which it falls to the ground, 
because we are at rest, when couipared with it, al- 
though both the ball and the ground on which we 
stand have another motion, which is common to them, 
or is the same. 

5. When we are riding in the cars, or in a carriage, 
the trees, rocks, land, and sky appear to move before 
us, and to pass by us ; but, in reality, it is ourselves 
that are moving. So when the earth moves in one 
direction, the stars and planets appear to move in an 
opposite one. When the earth moves from west to 
east, the sun appears to move from east to west ; but 
in fact, it does not move around the earth. W^e say 
that the sun rises in the east in the morning, and sets 
in the west at night. By it, we mean, that that part 
of the earth on which we are situated, is turned from 
the side of the sun, by the revolution of the earth on 
its axis, so that we are unable to see it till the morning, 
when the earth has turned on its axis, 

6. The revolution of the earth around the sun is 
performed in one year, or three hundred and sixty-five 
days, five hours, forty-eight minutes, and fifty-seven 

4. Why is not the motion perceptible to us ? Why can we perceive 
the motion of a ball ? 5. In what way does this principle apply to our 
riding in the cars, or in a carriage ? What is said of the apparent motion 
of the sun ? What do we mean by the sun rising and setting ? 6. In 
what time does the earth revolve around the sun ? 



BAY AND NIGHT. 35 

seconds. This is called its annual — meaning yearly — 
revolution. It turns on its axis once in a day, or in 
every twenty-four hours. This is its diurnal, or daily 
revolution. 

7. One of the first changes w^hich we observe, is that 
from DAY to NIGHT, and night to day. If the sun shine 
ever so brightly during the day, yet at night darkness 
overshadoweth the land. There is a cause for every 
thing v^^hich we see around us. Let us examine this 
subject, and see if we can ascertain the cause of this 
phenomenon. 

8. The earth is a dark body, like all the other planets, 
and receives light from the sun. If the sun and earth 
were both stationary, then only that part of the earth 
which was turned toward the sun would be enlightened, 
while the remainder would be in total darkness ; but 
the motion of the earth on its axis from west to east, 
brings first one side toward the sun, and then the other 
side ; so that every part in its turn receives light from 
the great luminary of day. 

9. The axis of the earth is inclined to the Equator ; 
therefore some parts receive more light, or for a longer 
time, than some of the others ; hence some regions 
have a longer day and night. When the days are 
longest in north latitude, they are shortest in the south. 
At the Poles, there is but one day and night in the year, 
which is six months in length. 

6. What does annual mean ? What is the time of the earth's diurnal 
revolution? 7. What is one of the first changes that we perceive? 
Explain this. Is there a cause for this ? 8. What kind of a body is the 
earth ? What would be the consequence if the sun and earth were sta- 
tionaiy ? What is the case ? What results from this ? 9. Why do some 
parts receive more light than others ? What is the consequence ? What 
is the fact with the days in north and south latitude ? What is the length 
of a day anrl night at the poles ? 



36 EARTH. 

10. When the axis of the earth passes the Equator 
at the Equinoxes, the days and nights are equal all 
over the world. The sun rises and sets exactly at 
six o'clock. These periods are called equinoxes, be- 
cause the word means equal nights. 

11. During the year, the earth turns on its axis once 
more than we have days. She turns a little more than 
once every day. The complete revolution of the earth 
on its axis is called a sidereal day. This is determined 
by the revolution of a star, from the instant it crosses 
the meridian, until it returns to that meridian. This day 
is divided into twenty-four hours. It is called a sidereal 
day, because the Latin word sidus means a star. 

12. The time from noon to noon, is called a solar 
or NATURAL DAY. If the suu had no motion on its axis, 
then the solar and sidereal days would be equal. But 
while the earth is revolving on her axis, the sun is per- 
forming his revolution, so that he moves forward one 
degree ; consequently, the earth has to move forward 
one degree more than her usual distance in twenty-four 
hours. It has been computed that a solar day is about 
four minutes longer than a sidereal day. This differ- 
ence is generally added to the sidereal day, which is 
said to be twenty-three hours, fifty-six minutes, and 
four seconds in length. 

13. The solar days are not all of the same length, 
because the earth moves faster when she is in that part 

]0. When are the days and nights equal 1 At what time does the sun 
rise and set? What are these periods called ? Why? 11. What is a 
sidereal day ? Why was this distinction made 1 In what way is this 
determined ? What is its lengtli ? What does the word meaa 7 
12. What is a solar day ? Wlien would the solar and sidereal days be 
equal? Why are they not ? What is the difference? To what U this 
difference added ? yVh^t is the length nf th'^ sidereal dnv ? 



EQUATION OF TIME. 37 

of her orbit which is nearest to the sun, than when she 
is more distant. Hence some consist of more, and 
some less than twenty-four hours. When a day con- 
sists of less than twenty-four hours, it is noon by the 
sun before it is by the clock ; then the sun is faster 
than the clock. When time is measured by the clock, 
it is called mean time. That indicated by the sun on a 
shadowy or on a sun-dial, is called apparent time. The 
difference betw^een them is called EauATioN of time. 

14. There are two causes why the days are unequal 
in length. One is, that the earth's orbit is not a circle, 
but an ellipse. Keplar, a distinguished mathematician 
and astronomer, ascertained that if a line were drawn 
from the sun to the earth, this line would, by the earth's 
motion, pass over equal spaces in equal times. If, then, 
the distance of the earth from the sun were always the 
same, and if its orbit were a circle, the earth w^ould 
pass through equal portions in equal times. But as the 
earth's distance from the sun is continually changing, 
the earth must pass through unequal portions of its 
orbit in equal times, or pass through greater portions 
of it in some days than in others. The second cause 
is the obliquity or inclination of the Ecliptic to the axis 
of the earth. 

15. The SOLAR or astronomical year is the time in 
wdiich the sun passes from one point in the Ecliptic 
to the same point, which is three hundred and sixty-five 

13. What is the length of a solar day ? Is there any difference be- 
tween time measured by the sun and clock ? Wliat is mean time ? 
What is apparent time ? W^hat is equation of time ? 14. What is one 
cause of the inequality of the days? What law did Keplar discover ? 
Does the earth pass through equal portions of her orbit in equal times ? 
What follows from this? What is the second cause of the inequality 
of the days ? 15. What is the solar year ? 

4 



38 EARTH. 

days, five hours, forty-eight minutes, and fifty-four 
seconds. The civil or common year is three hundred 
and sixty-five days. There are about six hours differ- 
ence between the two. If no reference were had to 
this want of agreement, the seasons would in a short 
time change, so that summer would come in winter, 
and spring in autumn. This difficulty was obviated by 
Julius Caesar, a Roman emperor, who added one day in 
every fourth year to February. In every year which 
can be divided by four, February has twenty-nine days. 
That year is called bissextile, or leap year. 1848, 
1852, 1856, etc., will be leap years. 

16. But it w^as soon perceived that they had added 
too much, by ten or twelve minutes, and that this, in 
one hundred years, would amount to three fourths of a 
day. Hence it was ordered that the years 1800 and 
1900 should not be leap years, and that after 1900, 
there should be a leap year only every four hundred 
years. This was called the Julian calendar, or the 
OLD STYLE of computiiig time. 

17. As the day was still too long, the difference had 
amounted to ten days ; therefore Pope Gregory, in the 
year 1582, ordered ten days to be taken from the year, 
and called the fifth of October the fifteenth. This was 
termed the new style, and was adopted in England 
in 1752; but they were obliged to take out eleven 

15. What is tlie length of the solar year? What is the length of the 
civil year ? What difference is there between the two ? What would 
be the effect of this ? In what way was this difficulty obviated ? What 
is leap year ? What years will thus vary ? 16. What fact was soon per- 
ceived ? In what way was this difficulty removed ? What was this 
called 1 17. What was the amount of this difference ? What course did 
Pope Gregory take in reference to it ? What was this called ? When 
was it adopted ? How many days were taken out ? 



SEASONS. 39 

days ; hence they called the third of September the 
fourteenth. 

18. The solar year commences and ends on the same 
day of the week ; but the leap year ends one day later 
m the week than it began. According to one writer, 
fifty-two multiplied by seven gives three hundred and 
sixty- four. As there are fifty-two weeks in a year, 
and seven days in a week, these numbers multiplied 
together make three hundred and sixty-four. The next 
day would commence the next week. If this year 
commenced on Monday, the next would begin on Tues- 
day, and so on of all the days of the month. But this 
is not so of leap year. If that year commences on 
Monday, it ends on Tuesday, and the next commences 
on Wednesday, so that all the days of the month are 
later by two days. 

19. The DOMINICAL LETTER is tho oue which is placed 
against Sunday. Tables are computed, and by refer- 
ring to them, you can easily ascertain on what day this 
takes place. 

20. Besides the succession of day and night, we 
notice another change. We enjoy many weeks of 
warm, delightful weather ; vegetation blooms and flour- 
ishes, the green leaves spring from the ground, the 
plant puts forth buds and blossoms, the lambs skip in 
the fields and frolic in the green grass, and all nature 
beams with a radiant smile of gladness. But soon seed- 
time and harvest pass away, and chilliness gathers in 
the atmosphere ; the trees, stripped of their foliage, are 

18. What is said of the commencement and end of the solar year 1 
In what way does the leap year differ ? Explain how this takes place. 
How does this apply to leap year ? 19. What is the dominical letter ? 
How can this be ascertained ? 20. What other change do we notice 
besides day and night ? 



40 



EARTH. 



all naked and bare, and the cold snows of winter cover 
the ground ; or, in other words, we have four different 

SEASONS SPRING, SUMMER, AUTUMN, and WINTER. 

21. The changes of the seasons are produced by the 
annual revolution of the earth around the sun, and the 
direction in which the sun's rays fall on the earth. 
When they fall perpendicularly, the season is warm- 
est, and when OBLiauELY, the season is the coldest. 
The earth is in that part of her orbit which is nearest 
to the sun, about the last of December, and in that part 
most remote, the last of June ; but, owing to the direc- 
tion of his rays, we have severe cold in the winter, and 
great heat in the summer, as represented in the follow- 
ing cut. S is the sun, and E the earth. When the 
rays fall from the sun in the direction of SW, the 
season is warmer than when in the direction of SM. 




direction of the sun s rays. 



20. What different seasons do we have? 21. What produces these 
changes ? When is the season the warmest ? Coldest ? Does the dis- 
tance of the eai'th from the sun affect the heat ? How do we know that 
this is not so 1 Explain the cnt '? 



SOLSTICES. 



41 



22. The Solstices are the two points where the 
Ediptic and the Equator are at the greatest distances 
from each other. The earth passes through each of 
these two points in her annual revolution. One is 
called the Summer Solstice, which takes place on the 
twenty-first of June, when the days are the longest, 
and the nights are the shortest, in our hemisphere. The 
other is the Winter Solstice, which occurs on the 
twenty-first of December, when the days are the short- 
est, and the nights are the longest. When the earth is 
in the Summer Solstice, on the twenty-first of June, 
as at A, in the following cut, with the North Pole 
inclined to the sun, the whole Arctic Circle will be 
illuminated, and the sun's rays will be extended twenty- 
three and a half degrees beyond the North Pole. When 
the earth turns on her axis, the whole of the Frigid 
Zone is within reach of his rays. There would, there- 
fore, be perpetual day at this time. 

Equinoxes — March. 






Equinoxes — September, 
SEASONS DAY AND NIGHT. 



22. What are the Solstices 1 Are these points near the earth's orbit ? 
What are they called, and when do they take place ? What is said of 
the days and nights at the Summer Solstice ? At the Winter Solstice ? 
Explain the cut. 



42 EARTH. 

23. But just the same proportion of the earth that 
is enlightened in the northern hemisphere, will be in 
total darkness in the opposite region of the southern 
hemisphere ; so that while those at the north are blessed 
with perpetual day, those at the south have perpetual 
night. 

24. ThosQ who live near the Arctic Circle, in the 
North Temperate Zone, will, during the winter, be for 
a few hours within the regions of light, by the earth's 
diurnal revolution. The greater the distance from the 
circle, the longer their nights will be, and the shorter 
their days. At this season, the days will be longer than 
the nights everywhere between the Equator and the 
Arctic Circle. At the Equator, the days and nights 
will be equal. Between the Equator and the South 
Polar Circle, the nights will be longer than the days, in 
the same proportion that they are longer than the 
nights from the Equator to the Arctic Circle. As the 
earth is a globe, the sun enlightens the half next to 
him, while the other half is in darkness. 

25. When the earth moves round the sun, she comes 
to B, at the twenty-first of September ; then the line 
of light and darkness passes through the poles and 
divides the earth equally from east to west ; the days 
and nights are of equal length all over the world. 
Then the sun is said to be in the autumnal equinox. 

26. As the earth moves from B to C, the light 

23. What portion will be in total darkness ? What will ensue ? 
24. What is said of those near the Arctic Circle ? What will affect the 
length of the days ? In what regions will the days be longer than the 
nights ? Where wil I the days and nights be equal 1 Where will the 
nights be longer than the days ? What follows from the fact that the 
earth is a globe ? 25. Explain how the days and nights are equal all 
over the world ? What is this season said to be ? 



EauiNOXEs. 43 

reaches the Antarctic Circle. The days are shorter in 
the northern hemisphere, and the whole Arctic Circle 
is in total darkness. • All those places which enjoyed 
constant day in June, when the earth was at A, have 
now perpetual night. The sun is now in the Winter 
Solstice. The nights of winter are as long as the sum- 
mer days, and the days of winter are as long as the 
summer nights. 

27. When the earth passes through another quarter 
of her orbit, as at D, on the twenty-first of March, the 
days and nights are equal all over the world, and the 
sun is in his vernal equinox. As the earth advances 
from D, the northern hemisphere enjoys more light, 
and the southern is immersed in darkness. The days 
north of the Equator increase in length until the earth 
comes to B again, and so on. 

28. At the Poles there are alternately six months of 
darkness and winter, and six months of sunshine and 
summer. While we are enjoying the pleasures and 
delights of summer, those in the southern hemisphere 
are suffering from the severities of winter. At the 
Equator, there is no winter, but two summers, and the 
days and nights there are always equal. As the sun 
constantly shines on the same half of the earth, in its 
turn, there are twelve hours of light and twelve hours 
of darkness. 

29. Though the sun is three millions of miles nearer 



26. When are the days shorter in the northern hemisphere? What 
changes take place in the days ? Where is the position of the sun ? 
What is said of the winter nights at this time ? 27. When is the earth 
in the vernal equinox? What takes place when the earth advances from 
the northern hemisphere ? 28. What is the diflference between the sea- 
sons of the northern and southern hemispheres 1 Poles ? What are the 
seasons at the Equator ? Days and nights ? 



44 EARTH. 

the earth in the winter than in the summer, yet, as has 
been stated before, we have colder weather. We do 
not have the most intense heat* when the sun is the 
most vertical or perpendicular, and when the days are 
longest ; for the heat accumulates in the atmosphere, 
and is increased after the days are shortened. It is 
most intense in the months of July and August. It is 
generally warmer in the afternoon, at two or three 
o'clock, than at twelve, whea the sun's rays are the 
most powerful, because there is more heat in the 
atmosphere. 

30. Our Creator has made a happy provision against 
our enduring very great vicissitudes of climate, by 
giving us the requisite changes of season for our com- 
fort and safety. 

ATMOSPHERE — -REFRACTION TWILIGHT. 

1. When the rays of light pass from one substance 
or medium into another of different thickness or density, 
they will not be seen in a straight course, but will be 
turned or bent in their direction. This turning or 
bending of the rays of the sun, is refraction. 

2. When light passes through air into water, it is 
refracted. Sometimes a stick is placed in a pond of 
water, to ascertain the depth of the stream. The 
water appears more shallow than it really is, because 

29. Is the sun at the same distance from the earth in summer and 
winter ? Does this affect the heat or cold ? Do we have the warmest 
weather when the sun is most vertical ? Why ? When is it the most 
intense ? What part of the day is the hottest ? Why ? 30. What is a 
wise provision of our Creator ? 1. What will be the effect when rays of 
light pass from one medium into another of different density ? What is 
this called 1 2. Give an example. What is the effect of a stick being 
placed in water 1 



REFRACTION ATMOSPHERE. 45 

the line of light which comes to our eye is bent by 
means of refraction. Hence this method cannot always 
be correct. 

3. One author mentions an interesting experiment 
which every one can test for himself If a small piece 
of money, or any other substance, be put into a dish, 
and the eye be placed so that the piece will not be 
quite visible, then, if water be poured into the dish, the 
piece will appear to rise to the spot where it will be 
distinctly seen. The reason is, that when the ray of 
light entered the water, it passed into a different me- 
dium than air, and was therefore bent by means of 
refraction, so that the object, like the stick in the 
water, appeared higher in the dish. 

4. The earth is surrounded by an atmosphere forty- 
five miles high, of different degrees of density. It is 
more dense at the surface, than several miles beyond 
it. There is a very perceptible difference in the atmos- 
phere on the summits of high mountains, and several 
miles below. It is a very common thing for persons 
on the Catskill mountains to see clouds floating belov^^ 
their tops, which are the messengers of rain, lightning, 
and thunder to the inhabitants in the valleys, while 
they enjoy a clear, pure air, without a cloud to obscure 
their sight above. 

5. Owing to the different degrees of density of the 
atmosphere, all the rays of light which enter it ob- 
liquely, are bent out of their course. Therefore, we 



2. Why does the water appear more shallow than it really is ? What 
follows? 3. What experiment is mentioned? What is the reason? 
4. By what is the earth surrounded 1 Does its density vary ? What 
fact is related of the atmosphere on the Catskill mountains ? 5. What 
results from the different degrees of density of the atmosphere ? 



AG 



EARTH. 



never see the heavenly bodies in their true places, 
without they are over our heads in the zenith. 




In the cut, CD, EF, GH, and IK, will represent dif- 
ferent degrees of density of the atmosphere. Suppose 
A to be a star, from which a ray of light proceeds in 
the direction of Aa. It will not be seen at b, but is 
refracted and seen in the line of ad, and so on to cL. 
The star would appear to change its place, and be vis- 
ible at B. As the sun, moon, and planets are never in 
the zenith, we never see them in their true places. 

6. If we look through a three-cornered piece of 
glass, called a prism, or observe the beautiful rainbow, 
w^hen it spans the heavens after a shower of rain, we 
notice seven different colors. Sir Isaac Newton was 
the first who separated a ray of light into seven colors. 
This is done by means of refraction. In the case of 
the rainbow, a ray of light from the sun passes through 
drops of water, and is divided into its primitive colors. 
Some are more refracted than others, and are therefore 
more bent, so that it presents a curved appearance. 
According to Sir Isaac Newton, the red is the most 



5. What is the consequence of the rays of light being bent out of their 
course ? 6. When are rays of light separated ? Who first discovered 
this law ? What is the cause? Explain the principle of the rainbow. 



TWILIGHT. 47 

refracted, then the orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, 
violet. All these colors, mingled together in certain 
proportions, produce white. Every youth can mix 
these seven different colors of paint, and make a white 
color. 

7. The atmosphere is sometimes more dense than it 
is at others ; hence arises the difference in the color of 
the sky, being at one time tinged v^^ith blue, and again 
presenting the most delicate violet and red appearance. 
We owe to refraction the gorgeous sunsets which often 
fill our souls with delight and admiration, and call out 
a response from all that is beautiful within us, as we 
behold the outward semblance of loveliness and per- 
fection. 

8. Refraction causes us to see objects higher above 
the horizon, or it elevates them higher than they really 
are ; hence the sun and moon are visible longer above 
the horizon than they otherwise would be. The sun 
is visible s^bout three minutes before he rises, and three 
minutes after he sets. Thus five or six minutes are 
added to each day. 

9. This faint lio;ht before and after the settinsr of the 
sun, is called twilight. It is owing mostly to the 
REFLECTION of the sun's rays through the atmosphere, 
and depends on the direction of the rays of light. 
When the sun arrives at eighteen degrees below the 
horizon, his rays are reflected, or bent down to the 
earth ; then light gradually steals over the eastern ho- 

6. What is Newton's theory ? How can white be produced ? What 
can all do ? 7. What is another consequence of the difference of the 
density of the atmosphere ? What do we owe to refraction ? 8. What is 
another eflfect of refraction 1 In what way does this apply to the sun 
and moon 1 What difference does it make 1 How much is added to the 
day ? 9. What is twilight ? To what is it owing ? 



48 EARTH. 

rizon, and day dawns. This is the morning twllight. 
In the evening, the faint hght is visible until the sun is 
eighteen degrees below the horizon. This is called the 
EVENING TWILIGHT. The latter is the longest, because 
the heat of the sun has raised clouds, vapors, and mists, 
which render the atmosphere more dense ; consequently 
both reflection and refraction are greater. 

10. If we had no atmosphere, there would be light 
only in that part of the sky where the sun was situ- 
ated ; the remaining part would be dark, and when 
the sun set at night, darkness would instantaneously 
follow light. On the tops of very high mountains, the 
atmosphere is quite rare or thin ; hence but few of the 
sun's rays are reflected, and the sky sometimes presents 
a dark and almost black appearance, and stars are fre- 
quently visible in the day-time. 

11. The sun and moon appear much larger when 
they are in the horizon, than when in the zenith, 
although they are much more distant. The reason of 
this is not because such is really the case, but because 
we imagine the distance less. When we see objects 
over our heads, with nothing to intercept our view, we 
"judge them to be nearer to us than when we look at 
them more remote from surrounding objects. When 
we suppose them to be at a greater distance, we al- 
most insensibly conclude that they must be larger. If 
the sun and moon be viewed through a piece of smoked 
glass, when on the horizon, they will appear, if any 

9. What is morning twilight ? What is evening twilight ? Why is 
the latter the longest 1 10. What is one benefit of an atmosphere? 
What is true in reference to the atmosphere on the tops of high moun- 
tains ? What follows from this? 11. When do the sun and moon ap- 
pear larger than they really are ? Why ? In what way can this be 
explained ? 



PARALLAX. 49 

thing, smaller in size, because we exclude all other 
things from our view. 

12. Refraction causes objects on the earth to appear 
higher, because the air is more dense at the surface of 
the earth. For this cause, a mountain, or any distant 
object, appears to be higher and nearer. At sea, in 
thick, foggy weather, distant objects " loom up," or 
seem to draw near. 

13. As has been stated, on account of refraction, 
none of the heavenly bodies are seen in their true 
places. The difference between the true and apparent 
place is parallax. Both refraction and parallax cause 
distant bodies to appear where the}^ are not. Refrac- 
tion elevates bodies, parallax depresses them. 

11. How will the sun and. moon appeal- through a piece of smoked 
glass? 12. Why does refraction cause objects to appear higher ? Why 
does a mountain appear higher? 13. What is parallax? What is the 
difference between parallax and refraction 7 
5 



60 MOON. 



CHAPTER IV. 

MOON— ECLIPSES— TIDES. 

1. Next in interest to our earth, is its satellite, the 
moon. It is the nearest of all the other planets, and of 
vast importance. By its various motions and changes, 
the astronomer ascertains the form of the earth, the 
cause of the tides, of eclipses, the distance of the sun, 
and the size of the solar system. By means of calcu- 
lations from the moon, the mariner is enabled to track 
his way through the briny deep with safety and cer- 
tainty. 

2. So great reverence had the ancients for this little 
orb, that many nations, as the Greeks, Romans, and 
Hebrews, were accustomed to assemble at the full or 
new moon, to offer thanks and gratitude for her unwea- 
ried attendance on the earth, and for the discharge of 
all her varied duties. 

3. The moon revolves around the earth once in 
twenty-nine days and a half. It turns on its axis at 
the same time ; so that a day and night at the moon 
are equal to one of our months. 

What are the subjects of chapter fourth ? 1. What is the earth's sat- 
ellite ? What is its comparative distance ? Why is it very important 
to us ? In what way is the mariner benefited ? 2. What feelings had 
the ancients for the moon ? In what way did they show them ? 3. In 
what time does she complete her revolution around the earth ? What 
other motion does she have at the same time ? How long is their day 
and niffht ? 



DISTANCE AND SIZE OF THE MOON. 51 

4. The moon revolves with the earth around the sun 
once in a year, so that a year at the moon is as long as 
one at the earth ; yet the moon has but twelve days in 
its year, each of which is equal to our month. 

5. The same side of the moon is always turned 
toward us, and those who live on the opposite side of 
the moon never see the earth, around which they 
revolve. 

6. It has been thought that inhabitants on the earth 
were particularly favored, because we are placed in 
that position of the solar system where more planets 
can be seen than in any position on any other planet. 

7. The moon is two hundred and forty thousand 
miles from the earth. It is two thousand miles in di- 
ameter. It may appear impossible to ascertain cor- 
rectly the distances of the planets from the earth or 
sun. On the earth, large tracts of land are measured 
or surveyed ; the height of lofty mountains, even, is 
estimated. It is done, not by actual measurement, for 
frequently this is impossible ; but by finding the pro- 
portion between the unknown distances, and other dis- 
tances which are known ; and so of the size or magni- 
tude of an object. We compare an object whose size 
we do not know, by one with the size of which we are 
acquainted. 

8. Dr. Lardner illustrates this principle in the follow- 

4. How long is a year at the moon ? Why ? Does the moon revolve 
around the sun ? 5. What part of the moon do we see ? What is said 
of those who live on the opposite side of the moon? 6. "Why are the 
inhabitants on the earth particularly favored ? 7. What is the distance of 
the moon from the earth? How many miles in diameter ? What ap- 
pears an impossibility ? What measurements do we know are made ? 
In what way is this done ? In what way can we ascertain the size of an 
unknown object ? 



52 MOON. 

ing interesting manner. He says, " Let us take, for 
example, a cent piece, or a penny, which measures 
about an inch in diameter, and let it be placed between 
the eye and the moon, at any distance from the eye. 
It will be found, on the first trial, that the coin will ap- 
pear larger than the moon ; it will, in fact, completely 
conceal the moon from the eye, and produce what may 
be termed a total eclipse of that luminary. Let the 
coin be moved, however, further from the eye, and it 
will then appear smaller, and will apparently diminish 
in size as the distance from the eye is increased. Let 
it be removed until it becomes equal in apparent mag- 
nitude to the moon, so that it will exactly cover the 
disc of the moon, neither more nor less. If its dis- 
tance from the eye be then measured, it will be found 
to be about ten feet, or one hundred and twenty inches, 
or, what is the same thing, two hundred and forty half 
inches. 

9. "But it is known that the distance of the moon is 
about two hundred and forty thousand miles ; and, con- 
sequently, it follows in this case, that one thousand 
miles in the moon's distance is exactly what half an 
inch is in the coin's distance. Now, under the circum- 
stances here supposed, the coin and the moon are simi- 
lar objects of equal apparent magnitude. In fact, the 
coin is another moon on a smaller scale, and we may 
use the coin to measure the moon's distance, provided 
we know the scale, exactly as w^e use the space on a 
map of any known scale, to measure a country. But 



8. In what way does Dr. Lardner illustrate this principle ? What will 
be the result if the coin be moved ? What will the last measurement be ? 
9. What is already known ? What, therefore, follows '? What can we 
suppose the coin to be ? What can we then use for a measurement ? 



MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON. 



53 



it has just been stated that the scale is in this case half 
an inch to one thousand miles ; since, then, the coin 
measures two half inches in diameter, the moon must 
measure two thousand miles in diameter. The moon 
is, then, a globe whose diameter is about one fourth of 
that of the earth. Its bulk is about one fiftieth of our 
globe, and its density is about three fourths of the 
density of the earth." 




TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE OF THE MOON. 

10. When the moon is seen through a telescope, 
mountains and valleys appear on its surface. Some of 
the mountains are four or five miles high, and are of 
great extent. The heights of these mountains have 
been ascertained, by observations on the shadows which 
they cast. 

11. Dr. Herschel declared that he saw volcanoes in 



9. What is the scale in this case? What are the final results? 
10. What is the telescopic appearance of the moon ? In what way has 
the heights of mountains been ascertained ? 11. What did Dr. Herschel 
eee in the moon ? 

5* 



54 MOON. 

the moon. He not only saw the light, flame, and 
smoke, but inferred the fact, from the formation of new 
mountains by the accumulation of matter, where fires 
had been seen to exist, and which remained after the 
fires were extinguished. 

12. More than two hundred spots are seen on the 
face of the moon. It is not supposed that there are 
any seas or lakes there, but huge masses of rock are 
piled on its surface. 

13. There are large circular cavities on the disc or 
face of the moon. Some of these huge caverns are 
nearly four, miles deep, and forty miles in diameter. 
They reflect the rays of the sun in a brilliant manner, 
and are said by astronomers to present the same ap- 
pearance to us that our earth would to the moon, if all 
our great lakes and seas were dried. These lunar cav- 
ities are probably intended for the reception of water, 
or are the beds of lakes and seas which have formerly 
existed in the moon. 

14. The scenery at the moon is more irregular, 
grand, and terrific than at the earth, as its mountain 
precipices are higher, its valleys are deeper, and its 
rocks are more cragged. 

15. A celebrated German thought he discovered the 
existence of a great city on the eastern side of the 
moon, an extensive canal in another place, and beauti- 
ful fields of vegetation in another. 

16. There have been various opinions respecting the 

11. What was Herschel's evidence? 12. How many spots have been 
seen? Is there any water on the moon? 13. What is said of the cavi- 
ties ? What appearance do they present ? What are these cavities ? 
14. What is the nature of the scenery at the moon' 15. What did a 
German discover ? 16. Concerning what have there been various opin- 
ions ? 



LIGHT OF THE MOOA" WITHOUT HEAT OR COLD. 55 

AT3I0SPHERE of the moon. As no clouds or mists can 
be seen at the present day, it is supposed by many that 
the moon has no atmosphere. Again, as there are 
very faint appearances of twihght, these would not 
take place unless there was an atmosphere to reflect 
the sun's rays. The extent and density of it are, how- 
ever, very slight, when compared with that of the earth. 

17. The light of the moon has no heat or cold. 
This was proved by means of a thermometer. The 
thermometer consists of two glass hollow circles, one on 
each side of a glass tube filled with some kind of 
liquid. When these circles or bulbs are placed where 
there is any heat or cold, the air inside of them will 
either increase and expand, or diminish and contract. 
The light of the moon was concentrated on one partic- 
ular spot, and when the thermometer w^as placed there, 
no effect was perceptible. If the sun's rays had been 
collected in that spot, they w^ould have been sufficiently 
powerful to have burned the hardest substance, or, at 
least, to have ignited a piece of gold. 

18. The moon is sometimes much farther from the 
earth than at other times. That part of the moon's 
orbit in which she is nearest to the earth is called its 
PERIGEE. The point where its distance is the greatest 
from the earth is its apogee. 

19. One peculiarity about the moon, and one which 
affects us in a great degree, is the phases or changes 

16. What are the various opinions respecting the atmosphere of the 
moon? Can the atmosphere be very dense? 17. In what does the 
light of the moon differ from that of the sun ? By what has it been 
proved ? Of what does the thermometer consist ? Explain the experi- 
ment ? W^hat would have been the effect, if the sun's rays had been 
collected ? 18. What is perigee ? What is apogee ? 19. What is the 
greatest peculiarity of the moon ? 



56 MOON. 

of the moon. Every one who notices the moon at all, 
will see that sometimes she appears resplendently beau- 
tiful ; then her light face diminishes in size, until what 
was once so bright and beautiful is dark and invisible. 

20. The moon is a dark, opaque body, and shines by 
the light which she borrows or reflects from the sun ; 
hence, that part only which is turned to the sun will be 
illuminated, as in the cut. 



g 





b 

PHASES OF THE MOON. 

21. The letter S will represent the sun ; E, the earth ; 
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, the moon in different parts of 
her orbit. When the moon is at A, between the sun 
and the earth, her dark side is turned toward the earth, 
as its bright side is presented to the sun. It has a dark 
appearance, and is invisible. The moon is said to be 
in CONJUNCTION with the sun, and presents a black sur- 
face to our view, as at a. But in a short time she con- 
tinues in her orbit east of the sun, and appears as at B ; 
then a small part of her illuminated side appears in 
sight, and we have a new moon, which is said to be 

19. What facts must all notice? 20. What kind of a body is the 
moon ? What is the effect of this ? 21. Explain by the cut, when the 
moon is in conjunction ? What is its appearance ? When is the moon 
horned ? 



I 



PHASES OF THE MOON. 57 

HORNED. When she has reached C, one half of her 
illuminated side is visible. The moon is then said to be 
in auADRATURE. When she has passed around to D, 
nearly the whole of her bright side is turned toward 
the earth, as at d. She is then said to be gibbous. 
When she is at E, all her illuminated side is toward the 
earth, and we have a full moon. When she performs 
the other half of her revolution, she presents the same 
appearances as before. At F she is gibbous. At G she 
is in quadrature. At H she is an old moon, or horned, 
and she is again invisible for several nights. 

22. The earth appears to the inhabitants at the moon 
thirteen times larger than the moon does to us. To 
those who live on the hemisphere next to the earth, our 
earth is always visible, and turns on its axis nearly 
thirty times as rapidly as the moon. The latter re- 
volves only once in thirty days. 

23. Those who live on the opposite hemisphere of 
the moon would be compelled to travel fifteen hundred 
miles to catch a glimpse of our earth above the hori- 
zon ; but they would be amply compensated for their 
trouble, in beholding a luminary thirteen times as large 
as the one we behold. 

24. When the moon is full, at the time of the au- 
tumnal equinox, in September, she rises about sunset, 
for several nights in succession. As this was noticed 
in England at the time of harvest, the phenomenon w^as 

21. When is she iu quadrature ? When is she gibbous? When do 
-we have the full moon ? What takes place when she performs the other 
half of her revolution ? 22. How does the earth appear to the moon? 
To whom is the earth visible ? How does its revolution compare with 
that of the moon? 23. What is said of those who live on the opposite 
side of the moon? Why would they be compensated for their trouble? 
24. What phenomenon takes place in September? 



58 MOON. 

called the harvest moon. The cause or reason of this 
occurrence is, that the moon passes over a greater por- 
tion of her orbit in one day than in another ; hence 
the difference between her times of rising is not per- 
ceptible. 

25. Another peculiarity which relates to the moon is 
her ECLIPSES. The word eclipsed means obscured, shut 
out, in a shadow, darkened, etc., etc. The eclipses, of 
both the sun and the moon, depend on the situation of 
the moon with regard to the earth. They present 
many interesting phenomena, and the more so, because 
they are predicted with great accuracy and certainty. 

26. A SHADOW is produced by the interception of the 
rays of light. When rays of light are thrown on a 
dark body, that body or substance prevents some of 
the rays from passing through it ; therefore there is a 
space where the bright rays cannot come, which is the 
shadow. When we stand before the light, our shadow 
or image is thrown on the opposite side of the room. 
The same is true of the planets. When any one of 
these passes between another and the sun, the rays of 
the sun are prevented from shining on the planet which 
is obscured. 

27. The ECLIPSE OF the moon is occasioned when 
the earth passes between the moon and the sun. It 
intercepts, or cuts off, the rays of light from the sun, 
and casts its own shadow on the moon. The moon. 



24. What was the full moon in September called, and why 1 What is 
the cause of this occurrence ? 25. What is another great peculiarity of 
the moon? What does eclipsed mean? On what do they depend"? 
Why are these phenomena interesting ? 26. By what is a shadow pro- 
duced ? Explain this idea more fully 1 In what way does this hold true 
with the planets'? 27. What occasions an eclipse, c»f the moon 7 



EC'LlPt?E UF THE MOON. 59 

being a dark body, has no light of its own, and is, there- 
fore, ecKpsed, as represented in the cut. S represents 
the sun, E the earth, and M the moon, which is dark 
and ecUpsed. 




ECLIPSE OF THE MOON. 



28. An ECLIPSE OF the sun takes place when the 
moon passes between the sun and the earth, or falls 
into the shadow of the earth. An eclipse of the sun. 
however, takes place only when the moon is full ; for 
the sun, moon, and earth must be in the same straight 
line, otherwise the effect will not be produced. The 
following cut represents an eclipse of the sun. All that 
part of the earth which the shadow of the moon covers 
is darkened or eclipsed. 



s ^ 







ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, 

29. The diameter of the shadow of the earth is 
nearly three times as large as the diameter of the moon, 
and the length of the earth's shadow is nearly four 
times as great as the distance of the moon. 

27. Why is the raoon echpsed? 28. What occasions an eclipse of the 
suii ? When only can this eclipse occur ? Why ? Explain the cut. 
29. What is said of the diameter and lensjth of the shadow of the earth? 



60 MOON. 

30. There are mo'e eclipses of the sun than of the 
moon in a year, yet more eclipses of the moon are 
visible. As the sun is very much larger than the earth 
and moon, the shadow^ of these bodies comes to a point. 
The sun illuminates half of the earth's surface, or a 
whole hemisphere. But the moon's shadow falls on 
but part of this hemisphere, and, therefore, the sun 
appears eclipsed to only a part of those to whom he is 
visible. 

31. When the moon is at its greatest distance, its 
shadow terminates before it reaches the earth. Directly 
under the end of the shadow, the edge of the sun's 
face is seen, like a bright ring around the moon. This 
eclipse is called annular, w^hich means like a ring. 




ANNUJ.AR ECLIPSE, 

32. When all the rays of the sun are intercepted or 
cut off, the eclipse is called total. When only a part 
of the sun's rays are intercepted, the eclipse is called 
partial. 

30. Which ecHpses are ihe most frequent ? Most visible 1 Why ? 
31. What is the shadow of the moon at its greatest distance ? What is 
an annular eclipse? 32. What is a total eclipse? What is 
eclipsp ? 



SOLAR ECLIPSES. 61 

33. When the moon is in the earth's shadow, it is 
deprived of all the sun's hght, and is therefore eclipsed 
to all the inhabitants of the earth. It is supposed that 
eclipses of the moon are visible to twice as many in- 
habitants as those of the sun are. 

34. We call it the eclipse of the sun, when his rays 
are intercepted ; but the sun shines on as ever, with 
brightness in his beams, and diffuses his rays of light 
around him in rich effulgence, although they are hidden 
from our view. But in eclipses of the moon, that 
satellite does not receive its accustomed light from the 
sun, therefore it cannot reflect it to the earth. The 
moon undergoes a change, and this change is percepti- 
ble to the whole hemisphere of the earth. 

35. We have generally two solar eclipses in a year. 
The greatest number we can have is seven. An eclipse 
of the sun lasts about three minutes. The first ob- 
servations of a solar eclipse that are on record, were 
made by the Chinese, two hundred and twenty years 
after the flood. That they understood the method of 
calculating eclipses is very evident, from the fact that 
a Chinese emperor was once so much enraged against 
the officers of state, because they neglected to predict a 
certain eclipse, that he caused them to be put to death. 

36. The Chinese have always considered solar 
eclipses as of great importance to the condition of their 
empire ; and, by means of them, they operate on the 

33. why is the moon eclipsed to all parts of the earth ? What follows 
from this 7 34. Does the sun change when he is eclipsed ? What is the 
fact in I'efevence to the moon ? 35. Wliat number of solar eclipses do 
we have in one year ? How long do they last ? By whom were solar 
eclipses first computed ? What fact is recorded concerning them ? 
36. How are they considered by the Chinese ? What use did they 
make of them ? 



62 MOON. 

fears, the ignorance, and superstitions of the common 
people. The Mexicans were accustomed to fast during 
echpses. They thought that the Great Spirit was in 
distress, and endeavored to reUeve him by this means. 

37. Among barbarous nations, they are regarded 
with fear and astonishment. The historian relates that 
when Christopher Columbus was shipwrecked on the 
island of Jamaica, he extricated his crew from a most 
embarrassing condition, by the exercise of great tact 
and management. He was greatly distressed for want 
of provisions, but the natives refused to render him any 
assistance. When all hope appeared to fail, and he 
was about to yield to discouragement, he accidentally 
remembered their superstition in regard to eclipses. 
He assembled the principal men of the island, and, after 
remonstrating with them against their inhumanity, he 
told them that the Great Spirit was offended ; that a 
great plague was about to come among them, and as a 
token of it, they would on that very night behold the 
moon hide her face in anger, and put on a dreadfully 
dark and threatening aspect. 

38. This scheme or artifice produced the desired 
effect ; for the eclipse had no sooner commenced, than 
the frightened barbarians ran with all kinds of provis- 
ions, threw themselves at the feet of Columbus, and 
implored his forgiveness for their inhumanity. 

39. Total eclipses of the sun, while they are regarded 
by the ignorant with fear and superstition, are, among 
enlightened nations, hailed as one of the strongest proofs 



36. In what way were the Mexicans affected ? Why did they do 
this ? 37. How were eclipses regarded by barbarous nations ? Relate 
the anecdote of Christopher Columbus. 38. What effect did his artifice 
produce 1 39. How should eclipses of the sun be regarded ? 



TIDES. 63 

of the truth of Astronomy ; for they show that the laws 
by which they are calculated are remarkably correct. 

40. The eclipse of the sun which occurred in June, 
in the year 1806, is the most remarkable one on 
record. It was at noon. The sky was free from 
clouds, and when the sun was wholly obscured, the 
planets and stars were visible ; gloom and dread over- 
spread the earth, the animals manifested fear, and were 
considerably affected ; the temperature of the earth 
decreased, chill and cold were everywhere experienced, 
and much relief was felt when the rays of the sun 
were once more seen. 

41. Professor Ohrjsted calculates that the next total 
eclipse of the sun, visible in the United States, will oc- 
cur on the seventh of August, 1869. 

42. Another peculiarity which relates to the moon, is 
the effect which it produces on the waters of the earth. 
Tides are the rising and falling of the water in the 
ocean. There are two tides every day. When it is 
HIGH tide at one place, it is low tide at the opposite 
place. 

43. The periods of high and low tide correspond 
with the passage of the moon above and below the 
horizon so accurately, that it was discovered that the 
cause of the tides must chiefly be attributed to her 
course and influence. 

44. Tides are occasioned by the attraction both of 

39. "SVhy should eclipses be regarded as one of the strongest proofs 
of the truth of Astronomy? 40. Which is the most remarkable 
eclipse that is recorded? Describe the appearance? 41. When %vill 
the next eclipse of the sun occur ? 42. What is another peculiarity of 
the moon ? What are tides ? How many are there ? Explain how this 
is the case. 43. What led to the idea that the tides were caused by the 
moon's influence ? 41. By what are tides occasioned ? 



64 MOON. 

the sun and moon on different parts of the earth. Pro- 
fessor Olmsted says, that if we " suppose that force by 
which the earth is carried forward in her orbit to be 
suspended, and the earth to fall toward one of these 
bodies — the moon, for example — in consequence of their 
mutual attraction, then, if all parts of the earth fell 
equally toward the moon, no derangement of its differ- 
ent parts would result, any more than of the particles 
of a drop of water in its descent to the ground. But if 
one part fell faster than another, the different portions 
would evidently be separated from each other. This is 
precisely what takes place with respect to the earth, in 
its fall toward the moon. The portions in the hemi- 
sphere next to the moon, on account of being nearer to 
the centre of attraction, fall faster than those in the op- 
posite hemisphere, and consequently leave them behind. 

45. " The solid earth, on account of its cohesion, 
cannot obey this impulse, since all its different portions 
constitute one mass, which is acted on in the same man- 
ner as though it were all collected in the centre. But 
the waters on the surface, moving freely under this 
impulse, endeavor to desert the solid mass, and fall 
toward the moon. For a similar reason, the waters on 
the opposite side, falling less toward the moon than the 
solid earth, are left behind, or appear to rise from the 
centre of the earth." 

46. If the earth and moon did not revolve on their 
axes, or around the sun, but were stationary, the attrac- 
tion of the moon would raise the water on the earth in 



44. What is Professor Olmsted's theory 1 When would derangement 
take place ? Is this the case ? Why are portions left behind ? 45. Why 
does not the earth yield to this impulse ? What course do the waters 
take? "'A hat is said of the waters on the opposite side? 



SPRING TIDES. 65 

one high heap, in that part of the ocean which was di- 
rectly underneath the moon's rays, and it would always 
continue in that position. 

47. As the earth revolves on her axis, every part of 
its surface is brought under the action of the moon ; it 
follows, therefore, that there is a high tide at one place, 
and a low tide at the opposite. 






SPRING TIDES. 

48. In the cut, E represents the earth, covered with 
water ; M, the moon, as if revolving in the dotted cir- 
cle around the earth. The moon attracts the earth, and 
the waters are raised at B, that portion being the near- 
est to the moon. At C, a distant part from the moon, 
the earth is drawn away, and there is a tide of waters 
which rush in to fill the place, as at C. When there 
is a high tide at B and C, there is a corresponding low 
tide at D and E. 

49. At the same time that the earth revolves on her 
axis, the moon advances in her orbit, so that the earth 
has to turn round a little more before the same place, 
B, comes under the moon. It has been ascertained that 
the tide is fifty minutes later one day, than it was on 
the preceding. 

50. The tides are higher at the Equator than at the 

46. What would arise if the earth and moon wei-e stationary ? 
47. What, then, produces the high and low tides? 48. Explain the 
cut ? 49. Why is the tide later every succeeding day ? How much ? 
50. Where are the tides the highest ? 

6* 



66 



MOON. 



Poles ; because the moon is nearer that part, and con- 
sequently attracts the earth more. 

51. The sun also attracts the earth, but its action is 
only one third as great as that of the moon. Though 
the magnitude of the sun is much greater than that of 
the moon, yet, as the moon is so much nearer the earth, 
it has greater influence on its waters. The attraction 
of the moon is not the same in different parts of the 
earth, which causes the different tides. 

52. When the sun and moon act together, in concert, 
as it were, they produce very high tides, called spring 
tides, as represented in the preceding cut. These oc- 
cur twice in one month. 

53. Sometimes the sun and moon act in opposition to 
each other. These opposite actions of the sun and 
moon produce low tides, called neap tides, as repre- 
sented in the following cut. 




/','. 



NEAP TIDES. 

The action of the sun tends to raise a tide at B and 
C ; but the moon's action is greater, and raises a tide at 
D and E. The tide raised by the sun is a small one, 
and is called a neap tide. 

54. There are scarcely any tides in lakes or seas, 



50. Why are the tides highest at the Equator ? 
er is the attraction of the moon than that of the sun ? Why does not its 
size make a difference ? 52. What are spring tides ? How often do 
they occur? 53. What are neap tides ? Explain the cut ? 54. In what 
are there no tides ? 



WHEN THE TIDES ARE GREATEST. 67 

because small collections of water receive an equal 
amount of attraction, so that every part is equally at- 
tracted. 

55. The tides are not always the greatest when the 
moon is on her meridian. Her influence is felt some 
time afterward. There is considerable resistance in 
the waters, which retards their motion, so that it is fre- 
quently several hours after the moon has left the place, 
before the tides rise. 

54. Why are there no tides in seas or lakes? 55. When is the tide 
the greatest. 



68 MARS. 



CHAPTER V. 

MARS— ASTEROIDS. 

1. Mars is the first of the superior planets, next to 
the earth in the solar system. It revolves around the 
sun at the distance of one hundred and forty-two 
millions of miles. Its diameter is four thousand two 
hundred miles, being about one half as great as that of 
the earth. 

2. Mars turns on its axis in a little more than twenty- 
four hours, which makes a day at Mars about the same 
length as on the earth. It revolves around the sun in 
about two years. One of their years is equal to two 
on the earth. 

3. Mars is sometimes much nearer the earth than at 
other times. When the nearest, it is only forty-seven 
millions of miles from the earth. It then rises with 
great brilliancy, about the time the sun sets. When at 
the greatest distance, it is two hundred and thirty-seven 
millions of miles, and then presents the appearance of 
a small star. When the sun and Mars are on the same 
side of the earth, Mars is said to be in conjunction ; 

What is the subject of chapter fifth ? 1. What planet is next to the 
earth 1 What is its distance from the sun ? What is its diameter ? 

2. In what time does Mars turn on its axis ? How long is their day ? 
What is its annual revolution ? How long is one of their years ? 

3. What is the least distance of Mars from the earth ? How does it ap- 
pear 1 What is its greatest distance ? What is its appearance ? When 
is Mars in conjunction ? 



RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN MARS AND THE EARTH. 69 

when on opposite sides, Mars is in opposition to the 
sun, as in the cut. 




conjunction AND OPPOSITION OF MARS. 

4. There is a great resemblance between Mars and 
the earth. Both have equal days and nights, the same 
succession of seasons, and the same variety w^ith re- 
spect to climate, zones, temperature, and atmosphere. 
The surface of Mars is diversified by continents, seas, 
islands, land, and water. 

5. Mars is very easily distinguished from the other 
planets, by its bright red light. Some suppose that this 
ruddy appearance is caused by an extensive and very 
dense atmosphere ; others, that it arises from a peculiar 
color on the surface of the planet, similar to the red 
sandstone which is very abundant in some parts of the 
earth. 

6. That Mars has an atmosphere, has been proved 



3. When is Mars in opposition "l 4. What resemblance is there be 
tween the earth and Mars ? With what is the surface of Mars diversified ? 
5. How can Mars be distinguished from the other planets ? What is the 
cause of its ruddy appearance 1 



70 



MARS. 



by the fact that when any star approaches the planet, 
its light diminishes, and sometimes it disappears ; yet 
others suppose that there is no sufficient evidence of 
this atmosphere. When viewed through a telescope, 
its surface is diversified by great varieties of appear- 
ances and colors, lights and shades, spots and belts, as 
will be seen in the followinsf cut. 




TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE OF MAKS. 

7. There is a great variety in its seasons. There 
are white spots around the poles, which Dr. Herschel 
thinks are indications of snow and ice. These alter- 
nately appear and disappear, according to the situation 
of the planet with respect to the sun ; which would 
favor the supposition of there being summer and win- 
ter. One third of its surface is covered by water. 
Some portions appear red, while others appear green. 
The former is thought to be land, the latter seas. 



6. How do we know that Mars has an atmosphere 1 What is its 
telescopic appearance 1 7. In what is there a great variety? What led 
Dr. Herschel to suppose that thei'e was summer and winter on Mars 1 
Is there any water ? What produces the difference of color in Mars ? 



ASTEROIDS. 71 



ASTEROIDS. 



1. Until the present century, there was a very 
large space between the planets Mars and Jupiter, 
in which no planet was discovered to be situated. 
It had been observed by many individuals, that there 
was a perfect harmony and regular proportion in 
the distances of all the other planets from the sun. 

2. The distance between Mercury and Venus is 
about twice as great as between Mercury and the 
sun. The distance between Venus and the Earth is 
twice as great as between Mercury and Venus. The 
distance between the Earth and Mars is twice as 
great as between Venus and the Earth. But this 
regular law of distance was broken by the space 
which intervened between Mars and Jupiter ; for 
their distance, instead of being twice, was five or 
six times as great as between the other planets. 
After Jupiter, the same rule holds true, for the distance 
between Saturn and Herschel is twice as great as 
between Jupiter and Saturn. 

3. In the year 1800, twenty-four astronomers united, 
with a view to examine the heavens thoroughly, in 
order to ascertain if a planet could not be discovered. 
The result of this examination was very satisfactory. 
Instead of finding one planet, they discovered four, 
which were called Asteroids. 

4. There were various causes which led them to think 



1. What is said of the distance between Mars and Jupiter? What 
observation had been made by many ? 2. What is this regular law of 
distance? In what way was this broken? Does this law hold true 
after Jupiter? 3. What occurred in the year 1800? What was the 
result ? 



72 ASTEROIDS. 

that these planets were the result of a terrible explo- 
sion of a large world, or planet, which at one time 
revolved between Mars and Jupiter. 

5. These bodies are much smaller than the other 
planets. They are so small, and at so great a distance, 
that their size can scarcely be determined. They all 
revolve at nearly the same distances from the sun. 
Their paths, or orbits, in which they move, are more 
eccentric, and all cross each other. It is thought that 
two of these bodies may come in contact with each 
other at some future time, and, in their turn, produce 
other planets. 

6. The other planets are round or spherical ; but 
these Asteroids are angular. They have corners, and, 
as Mr. Burritt says, are " star-form." The above 
peculiarities render the idea more clear, that these 
small planets are the result of some tremendous con- 
vulsion in the heavens. 

7. It is supposed that meteoric stones, which have, 
from time to time, fallen to the earth, are the result of 
the convulsion of a large body. 

8. Meteoric stones are stones which have fallen to 
the earth from the sky. They are different from any 
thing on the earth. Before they fell, there has been 
a light appearance in the atmosphere — a loud and 
hissing noise, like an explosion. The stones are hot, 
and are covered with a black crust. 



4. To what cause did they attribute these planets ? 5. What is their 
size ? What is said of their revolutions ? What is the nature of their 
orbits ? What may result from this 1 6. How do the Asteroids differ 
from the other planets ? What idea does their form indicate ? 7. What 
causes meteoric stones 1 8. What are meteoric stones ? What circum- 
stances have preceded their fall ? What is the nature of these stones ? 



PLANETARY THEORY. 73 

9. There have been many theories concerning the 
fall and nature of these bodies, several of which will 
be mentioned before we proceed to examine the 
planets themselves. Some suppose that they were 
thrown from volcanoes in the moon. This is called 
the LUNAR theory. But there is no certainty that 
any of the volcanoes of the moon are now in oper- 
ation. 

10. Another theory is, that these stones are thrown 
from volcanoes on the earth ; that they are sent 
into the air with great force, and fall in another place. 
This is called the volcanic theory. But this cannot 
be correct, for it has been ascertained that they come 
from a greater height than any volcano could throw 
them. 

11. Another is called the atmospheric or ^rial 
theory, which supposes that they were formed by 
the particles of air being condensed, or frozen. But 
it seems rather impossible for air to freeze hard 
enough to make iron or metallic substances. 

12. The planetary theory, as has been before 
explained, is, that a large planet exploded, and formed 
a number of smaller ones, and that the fragments 
were attracted by the earth, and at different times 
fell to its surface. This theory is generally believed 
by most astronomers, although it is not yet fully 
established. 

13. Some of these stones have been very large, 

9. Have there been any theories concerning meteoric stones ? What 
is the lunar theoiy ? Why is not this correct? 10. What is the vol- 
canic theory? Why is not this correct? 11. What is the atmospheric 
theory ? Why is this not possible ? 12. What is the planetary theory 1 
Which theory is generally believed 1 

7 



"74 ASTEROIDS. 

and have weighed three hundred pounds. They 
have fallen w^ith such great force to the earth, that 
they have been imbedded several feet in its surface. 

VESTA. 

1. Vesta is next to Mars, and is the first of the 
Asteroids. It is the only one of these bodies w^hich 
can be seen w^ithout the assistance of a telescope. 
Vesta was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, one 
of the twenty-four observers, on the evening of March 
9th, 1807. 

2. Its light is pure and steady, and it appears like 
a star in the heavens. It revolves around the sun 
in three years and eight months, at the distance 
of two hundred twenty three millions of miles. This 
planet is so small, that it cannot be determined 
whether it turns on its axis or not. It is two hundred 
and seventy miles in diameter. 

3. When we say that these bodies are small, wc 
mean that they are so in proportion to the surface 
of the earth ; but, if peopled with inhabitants, they 
would contain a large population, equal to several 
of our states. 

ASTREA. 

1. Astrea has recently been discovered to be the 
next asteroid to Vesta. 

13. What is said of the weight of meteoric stones? Do they fall with 
much force? 1. What planet is next to Mars'' Can these bodies be 
Been with the naked eye ? By whom was Vesta discovered ? 
When? 2. What is its light? In what time does it revolve aromid 
the sun ? What is its distance ? Does it turn on its axis ? What is its 
diameter ? 3. What do we mean by saying that this planet is small ? 
L What is the next asteroid ? 



ju\o. 75 

2. Professor Encke, of Dresden, recognized it to be 
a planet, December 8th, 1845. It was again seen 
on the 14th of the same month. Though it was not 
discovered at the time of the Asteroids, yet it is 
thought to belong to them. It is two hundred and 
fifty millions of miles from the sun. Little is yet 
known respecting it. 

JUNO. 

1. Juno is next to Astrea, and was discovered by 
Mr. Harding, near Bremen, on September 1st, 1804. 

2. It revolves around the sun in four years and 
four months, so that one of their years is equal to 
four of ours. It is two hundred and fifty-three millions 
of miles from the sun, and moves at the rate of forty 
thousand miles per hour. 

3. It has a red color. Schroeter says that Juno 
has an atmosphere more dense than either of the 
planets. Our Earth is nearly two hundred times as 
large as Juno. The light and heat at Juno are seven 
times less than w^e enjoy, so that her seasons are not 
only much longer than we have, but they endure a 
much greater quantity of cold. 

4. Juno revolves in a very elliptical orbit, and is 
sometimes twice as far from the sun as at other times. 



2. Who discovered Astrea? When? By whom was it again seen? 
When? What is its distance from the suu ? 1. What is the next 
asteroid to Astrea ? By whom was it discovered ? When ? 2. What is 
its period of revolatiou ? What is the length of their year ? What is 
its distance from the sun ? At what rate does it move ? 3. What is its 
color 1 What is its atmosphere ? What is its size ? What is the light 
and heat at Juno ? What is the nature of the seasons? 4. What is the 
orbit of Juno ? 



76 ASTEROIDS. 

CERES. 

1. Ceres is the fourth of the asteroids. It was the 
first one discovered by Piazza, of Palermo, on the first 
of January, 1801. It was so near the sun that it was 
not perceived for a while, but was again discovered. 

2. Ceres revolves around the sun in about four years, 
and is about two hundred and sixty-three millions of 
miles from the sun. 

3. Ceres has a very dense, cloudy atmosphere, said 
to be seven hundred miles in thickness, so that although 
she is much farther from the sun than the earth, yet 
she may enjoy the light of his beams in a great degree, 
on account of the refraction and reflection of her at- 
mosphere. 

PALLAS. 

1. Pallas is the next asteroid to Ceres. Pallas is 
about the size of the moon. It is about the same dis- 
tance as Ceres, and completes its revolution in the same 
time. Their orbits sometimes cross or intersect each 
other. 

2. Pallas has a dense, cloudy atmosphere. It is not 
known whether it has a diurnal revolution or not. 
Probably there will be more known respecting these 
small bodies as science advances, and as the power of 
the telescope is increased. 

1. What is the fourth asteroid 1 Who discovered it? When'? Why 
was it not perceived, for a while ? 2. What was the period of its revo- 
lution? What was its distance from the sun? 3. What is the atmos- 
phere of Ceres? Does Ceres enjoy the light of the suni Why? 
1. What is the next asteroid to Ceres ? What is its size ? What is said 
of its revolution and distance ? What is said of their orbits? 2. Has 
Pallas an atmosphere ? Has it a diurnal revolution 1 When shall we 
know more respecting these bodies ? 



I 



IRIS HEBE FLORA. 77 

3. Within the last year, another small planet has 
been discovered by Mr. Hinds, an Englishman, to be- 
long to the asteroids. It has been called Iris. But 
little is yet known respecting it. The symbol adopted 
for the planet Iris, is a semicircle representing the 
rainbow, with an interior star, and a base line for the 
horizon. The symbol was suggested by Professor 
Schumaker. 

4. Hebe was discovered by Professor Encke, of 
Dresden, in 1847. Mr. Hinds has recently discovered 
another planet, which is called Flora by Sir John Her- 
schel. The emblem is the " Rose of England." There 
are now eight small planets between Mars and Jupiter, 
which revolve around the sun in about the same length 
of time, at nearly the same distances. 

3. What did Mr. Hinds discover ? What is this planet called ? What 
is its symbol ? 4. Who discovered Hebe ? When ? What else has 
Mr. Hinds discovered ? What is its emblem ? How many planets are 
there between Mars and Jupiter ? 

7* 



78 JUPITER AND SATURN. 



CHAPTER VI. 

JUPITER— SATURN. 

1. Next to the asteroids is Jupiter, the largest of all 
the planets. It has a bright, beautiful appearance, is 
eighty-nine thousand miles in diameter, and is over one 
thousand times as large as our earth ; yet its density is 
only one fourth as great. 

2. It revolves around the sun at the distance of four 
hundred and ninety millions of miles, at the rate of 
thirteen thousand miles per hour, and completes its 
revolution in twelve years. If the seasons at Jupiter 
are divided in the same manner as at the earth, they 
have three years of extreme heat, three years of ex- 
treme cold, three years for their autumn, and three 
years to endure the cold, chilly blasts of spring. 

3. Its diurnal revolution is completed in ten hours ; 
so that though they may have seasons of great length, 
yet their days are of short duration, being only half as 
long as at the earth. 

4. But, as has been stated, the change of the seasons 
in a planet depends on the inclination of the axis to its 

What is the subject of chapter sixth ? 1. What planet is next to Ju- 
piter ? What is its appearance ? What is its diameter ? What is its 
size, compared with the earth ? What is its density? 2. What is its 
distance from the sun ? At what rate does it move ? In what time does 
it complete its revolution ? What would the seasons of Jupiter be, if 
they were divided like those of the earth? 3. What is its diurnal revo- 
lution ? What is the length of their days 1 4. On what does the change 
of the seasons depend ? 



I 



BELTS OF JUPITER. 79 

orbit. The axis of Jupiter is not inclined, but is per- 
pendicular to its orbit ; hence, in the same parallel of 
latitude there is a uniformity of season. At the equator 
there is continual summer, and at the poles everlasting 
winter, dread and dreary, with the day and night equal 
at both. The heat and light at Jupiter, received from 
the sun, are twenty-seven times less than the earth 
enjoys. 

5. It has been estimated that if a steam-engine should 
move on a railroad, at the rate of twenty miles per hour, 
to the planet Jupiter, it would require over three thou- 
sand yea,rs to accomplish the distance. Or if a cannon 
ball should move at the rate of five hundred miles an 
hour, it would be over one hundred years before it 
reached its destination. 




Jupiter's belts. 
6, When Jupiter is viewed through a telescope, it 
presents a magnificent appearance. Broad belts or 

4. What is the position of Jupiter with respect to its orbit ? What is 
the result'? V>^hat are the seasons at the equator and poles'? What is 
the heat and light at Jupiter ? 5. How long would it take a steam-en- 
gine to reach Jupiter, at the rate of twenty miles per hour 1 How long 
would it take a cannon ball to reach Jupiter ? 6. What is the telescopic 
appearance of Jupiter ? 



80 JUPITER. 

Stripes extend across its surface, which vary in number 
and size. Sometimes as many as seven or eight have 
been seen, some of which are five thousand miles in 
breadth. These frequently continue without any change 
for some time, and then new ones have been formed 
within an hour. 

7. Many have regarded these belts only as clouds, 
which collect in the atmosphere of Jupiter ; and that, 
as they are agitated by constant winds, they assume 
the form of belts, which lie parallel to the equator. 
These belts are affected by currents of air that pass 
around the planet, in the same manner that trade winds 
and other currents pass around our globe. It is, how- 
ever, believed by many that the belts are portions of 
the planet, which are seen through the clouds and mists 
that exist in its atmosphere, by the openings which are 
made by currents. 

8. The inhabitants of Jupiter have some compen- 
sation for their great distance from the sun, for they 
have four bright resplendent moons to light their sky, 
and cheer their prospect. Some of these moons are 
visible to Jupiter at every hour of the night. These 
satellites revolve around Jupiter, at the same time 
they revolve on their axis. They also undergo the 
same changes and appearances that the planets do 
when they move around the sun. 

9. When Jupiter is seen from his nearest moon, he 

6. How many belts have been seen on the surface of Jupiter ? What 
is the breadth of some of them? Do these change ? 7. How do many- 
regard these behs ? By what are these belts affected 1 What is the 
general opinion respecting these belts ? 8. What compensation have the 
inhabitants of Jupiter for their great distance from the sun ? What is 
said of the revolutions of these satellites 1 Do they change in appear- 
ance ? 



I 



LIGHT PROGRESSIVE. 81 

presents a most magnificent appearance, of a size 
as large as a thousand of our moons. We can scarce- 
ly conceive so bright, luminous, and stupendous a 
body in our sky. This planet alone would indicate 
the great power of our Maker, if there were no other 
proofs of his existence and oumipotence. 

10. One of these moons treads its track around 
its primary in about one day and three fourths ; an- 
other in three days and one half; the third in seven 
days and one sixth ; the fourth in sixteen days and 
one half. These satellites have a great variety of 
length to their day and year. 

11. The moons, or satellites, of Jupiter, are fre- 
quently eclipsed, in the same manner that our moon 
is eclipsed when she passes through the earth's 
shadow. They pass behind their planet, and, conse- 
quently, are deprived of their light ; for they, like our 
moon, are dark bodies, and shine by the reflected 
light of the sun, the great source of light to the whole 
system. 

12. On account of the great size of Jupiter, and 
its great distance from the sun, its shadow is much 
longer ; therefore, the satellites are eclipsed in each 
of their revolutions. These eclipses can be seen by 
means of a telescope, and from them the time has 
been ascertained that it takes for light to reach the 
earth ; also, that light is progressive and not instan- 
taneous. 

9. What is the appearance of Jupiter to his nearest moon ? What 
would this planet indicate? Why ? 10. What is the period of the revo- 
lution of these different satellites? What is the effect of this? 11. 
Are these satellites ever eclipsed ? What kind of bodies are they ? 12. 
What causes the frequent eclipses of these satellites ? Can these 
eclipses be seen ? What has been ascertained from them ? 



°^ JUPITER. 



in 



13. It was observed that when the earth was L 
that part of her orbit, nearest to Jupiter, eclipses 
took place sixteen minutes sooner than when she 
was at her remotest point ; it therefore takes light 
sixteen minutes to cross the diameter of the earth's 
orbit. It moves at the rate of one hundred and ninety- 
two thousand miles per second. 

14. Our Earth, Mercury, Venus, and Mars, are 
never seen by inhabitants on Jupiter, because 
they are so much nearer the sun that they are lost 
in his rays. But they have the vast space bevond, 
where they can direct their gazing eyes, and perhaps 
behold worlds, and systems of worlds, whose dis- 
tance from the earth forever excludes them from 
our sight. Their own firmament is sufficient to 
excite their wonder and admiration, and to call forth 
all the sublime within their souls, and to raise their 
hymn of praise and thanksgiving to the great Creator 
of the planetary world. 

15. Very recently, Mr. Lassel has discovered an- 
other satellite of Jupiter at Cambridge. By calcu- 
lation it is supposed that there is still another. 

SATURN. 

1. Saturn is next to Jupiter in the solar system. 
It is one of the most interesting and beautiful of all 
the planets. It is the most distant planet that can be 
s^eenby the naked eye, and shines with a pale, feeble light. 

13. Explain the process. At what rate does light move ? 14 What 
planets are never seen by inhabitants at Jupiter? Why not -? What 
may they see which we cannot ? What feelings ought their own firma- 
ment to excite? 15. What recent discovery has Mr. Lassel made? 
Where? What supposition still remains? 1. What planet is next to 
Jupiter? Whatis its nature? What is said of its .distance ? 



THE RINGS OF SATURN. 83 

2. Saturn is one thousand times as large as our 
earth, and is seventy-nine thousand miles in diameter. 
It revolves around the earth at the immense distance 
of nine hundred millions of miles, and completes its 
revolution in less than thirty years. 

3. The degree of heat and light received from the 
sun at Saturn, is eighty times less than that enjoyed 
at the Earth. Its inhabitants, therefore, have a long, 
dreary winter, or an equally long, scorching summer. 

4. On account of the great distance of Saturn from 
the sun, it has been more impossible for astronomers 
to make observations on its surface. But it is diver- 
sified by dark spots and belts, and is accompanied 
by seven bright luminaries, v^hich tend to relieve the 
absence of the sun's rays. 

5. Sometimes five belts extend across the surface 
of the planet ; three of them are dark, and the other 
two bright and luminous. When viewed through 
a telescope, two rings encircle this beautiful planet. 
Very recent observations show that there are four 
divisions to the ring instead of one, as was originally 
supposed. Even six divisions have been noticed, in 
which case there would be seven rings revolving 
around the planet. 

6. They often appear as if they were only one ring ; 
but they are eighteen hundred miles apart. When 

2. What is the size of Saturn, compared with the Earth ? What is 
its diameter ? What is its distance 1 In what time does it complete its 
revolution ? 3. How much light and heat does Saturn receive 1 
What is the consequence ? 4. Why has it been impossible for astrono- 
mers to make " obsers'ations on Saturn? With what is ita surface 
diversified ? By what is it accompanied ? 5. How many belts are 
there ? What is visible through a telescope ? How many divisions are 
there to this ring ? 6. How do they appear ? How far apart are they ? 



84 



SATURN. 



we think of this distance on the earth, we shall be 
able in some degree to comprehend it among the 
celestial bodies. These rings, like the planets, are 
thought to be peopled with some of God's creatures. 

7. That these rings are dark, opaque bodies, is 
proved by the shadows which they cast on the planet. 
They, however, shine with a bright and beautiful 
light reflected from the sun. Between the rings and 
the planet, stars are frequently visible. That side 
only which is turned toward the sun is enlightened ; 
the illumination of the rings is much greater than 
of the planet itself. 




SATURTS" WITH ITS RINGS. 



8. The rings of Saturn revolve in ten and one 
half hours, which revolution was discovered by 
means of dark spots which change their position. 



6. Can we comprehend the distance between the ruigs of Satumi ? 
Are the rings probably inhabited ? 7. What is the nature of these rings, 
and how is it proved? How do they shine? What are sometimes 
visible between the rings? What part is enhghtened ? Which is the 
brightest ? 8. In what time do the rings revolve ? By what was it 
discovered ? 



USE OF THE RINGS. 85 

9. Sometimes the rings are invisible. There are 
three causes that produce this. Firstly : When the 
sun and Earth are on opposite sides of the rings. 
This will occur once every fifteen years. Secondly : 
When the edges of the rings are turned toward the 
earth, it is not seen on account of its distance and 
small size. This will also occur once every fifteen 
years. Thirdly : When the edges of the rings are 
turned to the sun, the edge is the only part which is 
illuminated, and it is at too great a distance to be 
seen. This will occur once in every fifteen years. 

10. During the year 1847, Saturn appeared sur- 
rounded by his rings ; but these becaaie less and 
less visible, till, during a part of 1848, the rings will 
not be visible at all ; the planet will then present the 
appearance of a round ball. It will be two years 
before the rings will be in a favorable position for 
observation. 

11. The USE of the rings is to reflect fight on the 
planet, in the absence of the sun ; for one half is turned 
toward the sun for fifteen years, while the other half 
is turned away and receives no light from the sun. 

12. The axis of this planet is perpendicular to its 
orbit, so that, like the inhabitants of Jupiter, those who 
live in the same latitude enjoy a uniformity of climate. 

13. Both of the rings are one hundred and fifty times 
as large as the earth ; the inner one is about thirty 

9. Are the I'ings of Saturn always visible ? What is the first cause ? 
Second? Third? How often will these different causes operate? 
10. How did Saturn appear in 1847? What change then took place? 
What appearance did the planet present? How long will it continue 
thus ? 11. What is the use of the rings ? Why is this necessary ? J 2. 
What is the direction of the axis to the planet ? What is the result of 
this? 13. What is the size of these rings in comparison with the earth ? 

8 



86 SATURN. 

thousand miles distant from the planet ; so that though 
Saturn appears like a point in the starry heavens, yet, 
with its rings, it requires an immense amount of space 
to enable it to revolve w^ithout coming in contact with 
the other planets. 

14. When we consider that this planet revolves 
around the sun and on its own axis, that its rings re- 
volve around the planet and on their own axes, its 
seven satellites revolve around their primary and on 
their own axes, and that all these revolutions are com- 
pleted in regular appointed times, without any interfer- 
ence or contact, when but the least difference in the 
rapidity of the rings and the planet would hurl the rings 
against the planet, and produce a convulsion in nature 
which would probably affect our whole planetary sys- 
tem, we are filled with wonder at their perfect arrange- 
ment and harmonious action. Then when we think that 
these little worlds are but as specks in God's whole 
universe, we are led to exclaim with the Psalmist, 
"What is man, that thou art mindful of him, or the 
son of man, that thou regardest him ?" 

15. The rings of Saturn present a splendid appear- 
ance to those inhabitants to whom they are visible. 
Sir John Herschel describes them. " like vast arches 
which span the sky from horizon to horizon, as far as 
the eye can extend, and hold a place among the stars. 
The dark side of the planet, which is obscured for 
fifteen years, would appear to our comprehension a 
wild and dreary waste ; yet we do not know but there 

13. What is the size of Saturn's inner ring ? What do Saturn and its 
rings requii'e ? What fills our souls with wonder ? What are we led to 
exclaim ? 15. How do the rings of Saturn appear ? What is Herschel's 
description of them ? 



ALL NATURE INVESTED WITH LIFE. 87 

are inhabitants or intelligences peculiarly fitted by na- 
ture to enjoy this peculiarity of their planet." 

16. The wide ocean is peopled with fish after its kind, 
the lakes and seas sparkle with animated life, and every 
drop of water is filled with a thousand little animal- 
culse. It would be no more than a reasonable conclu- 
sion to suppose that the vast worlds above us were also 
filled with intelligences. 

17. To an inhabitant at the moon, where there is no 
water, the earth, two thirds of which is covered by the 
deep, deep, billowy ocean, would appear an inhospitable 
abode — an undesirable place for the habitation of an 
intelligent being, created with susceptibilities for happi- 
ness or misery. This beautiful earth, with all its love- 
liness and grandeur, would be the last spot to which a 
lunar spirit would desire to wing its flight. 

18. We do not know but that cataracts far more 
sublime than Niagara, caverns whose depths are uii- 
fathoQiable, mountains whose summits are inaccessible, 
and nature's scenery in her wildest, maddest forms, are 
the enjoyments of mortals on the planet Saturn. This 
we do know, that Saturn has seven glittering satellites 
to attend him. These moons are at so great a distance 
from us, that they can be seen only by the most power- 
ful telescopes. 

19. The evening scenery at Saturn, vfith its seven 
moons, must be magnificent. As one rises above the 
horizon, another sets below, while a third approaches 

15. Why ought we not to conclude that the dark side of the planet is 
a dreary waste ? 16. To wl at extent do we find the earth inhabited ? 
What is a reasonable conclusion ? 17. How would the earth appear to 
an inhabitant of the moon 1 Would he desire to live in it ? 18. What 
features may exist in Saturn which w-e do not have ? What do we know ? 
Are these ever visible ? 



88 SATURN. 

the horizon. These moons change in appearance in the 
same manner as ours. One appears like a crescent, 
another is gibbous, while another is full. Sometimes all of 
them shine in the same hemisphere, in one bright 
assemblage. The splendid rings at one time illuminate 
the sky, and eclipse the stars with their brightness ; and 
again cast a deep shadow over parts of the planet, and 
reveal the wonders of their starry firmament. 

19. Describe the evening scenery at Saturn. 



DISCOVERY OF HERSCHEL. 89 



CHAPTER VII 



HERSCHEL— NEPTUNE. 



1. There is a great regularity between all the mo- 
tions of the different planets ; but inequalities between 
Jupiter and Saturn led astronomers to think that there 
must still be a planet beyond Saturn. 

2. In 1781, Dr. Herschel discovered the motions of 
a body which he at first supposed to be a fixed star, but 
w^hich he afterward found to be a planet. 

3. This planet was discovered during the reign of 
George III. of England ; he therefore called it Georgium 
Sidus, the Latin term for Georgian Star. Some call it 
Herschel, after its illustrious discoverer ; others, Ura- 
nus. This is the most distant of the planets yet dis- 
covered, with one exception. It cannot be seen with- 
out the aid of the telescope, unless the night be very 
clear. 

4. Herschel is eighteen hundred millions of miles 
from the sun. Though it completes its revolution in 
the long time of eighty-four years, yet it moves at 
the rate of fifteen thousand miles an hour. If a steam- 
boat on the earth sail four hundred miles, or a rail- 

What is the subject of chapter seventh? 1. la what is there great 
regularity ? Why did many suppose that there was a planet beyond 
Saturn? 2. Who discovered the planet? When? 3. W^hat was this 
called ? Why ? What are its other names ? Is this planet visible ? 
4. What is its distance from the sun ? In what time does it complete its 
revolution ? With what velocity does it move ? 
8* 



90 HERSCHEL. 

car move eight hundred miles in one day, they are 
thought to move very swiftly ; yet this planet moves 
on its way, without any cessation or impediment, with 
a still greater velocity. 

5. Herschel has not completed one of its revolu- 
tions around the sun since its discovery, though it has 
been recognized as a planet for nearly seventy years. 
It is supposed to revolve on its axis, but this motion, 
as yet, has not been discovered with certainty. Its 
diameter is thirty-five thousand miles. It is eighty 
times larger than our earth. 

6. The sun must appear to an inhabitant at Her- 
schel, three or four hundred times smaller than it 
does to us ; and they receive but a small portion of 
his rays ; yet their light is said to be more than the 
light of one thousand full moons. Its atmosphere is 
dense and cloudy. 

7. Herschel has six satellites to illuminate its sky. 
These are so far away from us that they are but faintly 
seen. Two of them were discovered by Dr. Herschel, 
four by his sister. 

8. These satellites have peculiarities which are not 
found in those of the other planets. They all move 
around their primary from east to west, while all the 
other planets or satellites move from west to east ; 
their orbits are also all perpendicular to the ecliptic. 

4. How does the velocity of Georgium Sidus compare with that of 
steamboat, or rail-car? 5. Has Herschel yet completed a revolution 
How many years since its discovery? Does it revolve on its axis?! 
What is its diameter ? What ' is its size compared with that of the 
earth? 6. How does the sun appear at Herschel"? How great is 
their light'? What is the nature of its atmosphere? 7. How many 
satellites has Herschel ? By whom were they discovered ? 8. What 
are some of the poculiarities of these satellites ? 



DISCOVERY OF NEPTUNE. 91 

NEPTUNE. 

1. When Saturn was discovered, it was thought 
to be the most remote planet ; but it was soon found 
that there was some influence which operated on it, 
and disturbed the regularity of its motion. Sir Wil- 
liam Herschel made observations with his telescope, 
and discovered that what he had supposed to be a 
comet was really a planet. 

2. It was not thought possible for human investiga- 
tion to extend further, as Herschel was eighteen mil- 
lions of miles from the sun. Its revolutions and dis- 
tances were computed, but it was soon discovered 
that they had either made some mistake in their calcu- 
lations, or that a contending power was exerting an 
influence on the planet ; for it had increased its dis- 
tance from the sun twice the distance of the moon 
from the earth. 

3. Leverrier, a Frenchman, began to investigate 
the movements of the planets. He resolved to com- 
pute a new set of tables. He did so, and predicted 
the precise instant when Mercury would cross the 
sun. At the very moment, on the 18tb of May, 1845, 
Professor Mitchell witnessed the transit, from his new 
observatory, in Cincinnati. This was a great triumph 
to Leverrier. He then investigated the movements 
of Jupiter and Saturn, and ascertained what influence 
they exerted on Herschel. He arrived at the conclu- 
sion that there must be some outward cause which 

1. What was the opinion with regard to Saturn at onetime? What 
was the final result ? 2. Why was this considered the limit of discov- 
ery ? What did they soon perceive 1 Why must this be so ? 3. What 
course did Leverrier pursue 1 What was the result of this prediction ? 
What further investigations did Leverrier make ? 



92 NEPTUNE. 

operated on Herschel, and that this power must be 
a planet. 

4. He knew that Saturn was double the distance of 
Jupiter from the sun, and that Herschel was double 
that of Saturn ; he hence concluded that the new 
planet must be twice the distance of Herschel, and 
that it must be somewhere in the ecliptic. If so, the 
new planet must be thirty-six hundred millions of 
miles from the sun, and its revolution would be three 
times as long as that of Herschel, which would be two 
hundred and twenty years. He ascertained when and 
where Herschel was mostly drawn away from the 
sun, and from this he concluded that the new planet 
would be in the same line. 

5. September 23d, the astronomers of Berlin Ob- 
servatory, guided by the conclusions of Leverrier, 
saw the planet the first evening they looked for it. It 
is as bright and beautiful as Jupiter, and its diameter 
is forty thousand miles. 

6. A Mr. Adams, an English astronomer, who had 
also been attempting to solve the difficulty which 
existed, arrived at the same results with Leverrier, 
and presented his tables to the royal astronomers 
of the university where he was, for their examination. 
This was seven months before Leverrier made his 
investigations known. As soon as the planet was 
discovered, astronomers in every section of the coun- 
try were on the lookout to examine it. 

4. What is true of Saturn and Herschel? What relation must the 
new planet bear to these? What other inference did he make? 5. 
Where and when was the planet seen 1 What is its appearance ? 6. 
Who was Mr. Adams ? To what had his attention been drawn ? To 
whom did he present his tables ? How long was this before Leverrier's 
were made ? What did astronomers do ? 



1 



PLANETARY SYSTEM LIMITLESS. 93 

7. It was soon perceived that a wrong calcula- 
tion had been made in reference to its distance from 
the sun. Also, the time of its revolution, and that 
the planet seen would not account for the irregular 
motions in Herschel. 

8. Many believe that this body is but one of a 
number of planets which may be yet discovered to 
revolve in similar orbits, the same as the eight small 
planets between Mars and Jupiter were at one time 
thought to be but one. 

9. There is no reason to suppose that we have 
discovered, and are acquainted with all the planetary 
system, or that we scarcely begin to know what 
will be revealed from time to time. Even on our 
earth, at this age of rapid traveling, when we can 
almost fly on the wings of steam, and sail from con- 
tinent to continent, there is yet much unexplored 
country ; the mariner still discovers new islands, and 
as telescopic power increases, there may be worlds and 
systems of worlds revealed to our line of vision, which 
revolve around the common centre with our earth. 

7. what eiTors were soon discovered 1 8. What is the opinion of 
many with regard to this planet? 9. What supposition would be incor- 
rect ? Why would this be inapplicable to the earth ? 



94 COMETS. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

COMETS. 

1. We have not only planets in our solar system, 
but other bodies, called comets. 

2. These were formerly regarded by the ancients, 
who knew very little respecting them, as messengers 
of great calamity, of pestilence, of war, or as an ex- 
pression in some way of wrath from the Deity. 

3. We are not at all surprised that this should have 
been the case, for all comets are singular bodies ; 
they move in very eccentric orbits, are sometimes 
very near the earth and the planets, and then are 
millions of miles distant, wending their path through 
unknown space. 

4. Comets are divided into three parts, the nu- 
cleus, the ENVELOPE, and the train, or tail. 

5. The NUCLEUS is a bright spot in the head. The 
term nucleus means gathering around the pith, or 
point. Some think that the nucleus is always trans- 
parent, and that comets are only a collection of thin 
vapor, which is condensed at the centre ; others sup- 
pose that it is dark and solid like the planets. 

6. Comets, when viewed through a telescope, pre- 

1. What other bodies are there in the solar system besides planets ? 2. 
How were these regarded by the ancients? 3. Why should we not be 
surprised at this ? 4. Into what three parts are comets divided ? 5, 
What is the nucleus ? What does the terra mean ? What different ideas 
do persons have in reference to the nucleus and the comet ? 



DIFFERENT PARTS OF A COMET. 95 

sent the appearance of dense vapor, surrounding the 
nucleus. They have been divided into those which 
have no nucleus, those which have a transparent nu- 
cleus, and those which have a solid nucleus. The 
nucleus is generally small, when compared with the 
rest of the body. 

7. The second part of a comet is the envelope. 
This is a dense, cloudy vapor, and sometimes entirely 
conceals or obscures the nucleus. It is often called 
the COMA — which means hair — because it has a hairy 
appearance. 

8. The TRAIN, or tail, is a long, luminous appendage 
of vapor, which accompanies these bodies in their 
missions hither and thither, but generally precedes 
them, when they go in an opposite direction from the 
sun. These trains are sometimes of enormous length 
and size. If we were unacquainted with some of their 
laws, they would appear to threaten destruction where- 
ever their seeming wayward course was directed. 

9. There is no certain knowledge with reference to 
the materials which compose them, or their nature. 
Some of the old astronomers supposed the tail to be 
the sun's rays which shone through the nucleus ; others, 
that it was the atmosphere of the sun, which was cast 
off or sent away by the influence of the sun ; others, 
that it was thin vapor emitted from the sun, in the same 
way that smoke and vapor rise from the earth. But 

6. What is the appearance of comets when seen through a telescope ? 
Into what classes are comets divided ? What is the comparative size 
of the nucleus ? 7. What is the second part of a comet 1 What is the 
envelope 1 What is it often called ? Why 7 8. What is the train, or 
tail 1 What is said of their size ? What might their appearance indicate 1 
9. Of what are they composed ? What are various opinions concerning 
them 1 



96 COMETS. 

these are points which are yet to be satisfactorily ex- 
plained. 

10. The train is often of great length, and extends 
from the horizon to the zenith. 

11. One strong and plausible reason why comets 
contain very little solid matter, is, that they often pass 
very near the planets, without affecting them or inter- 
rupting their motions. They are themselves disturbed 
by the close proximity, and frequently their orbits are 
materially changed. 

12. There is an interesting account of a large and 
brilliant comet which was visible in 1770. This comet 
approached very near the earth, but did not disturb her 
motion in the least. When it had passed through 
space in the vicinity of Jupiter and her satellites, the 
attraction was so great that it remained four months 
among them, though the motions of Jupiter were not 
disturbed. At the time of its discovery, its orbit was 
an ellipse, which required five years and a half for a 
complete revolution. This orbit was changed for one 
which required fifty years. When it approached nearer 
to Jupiter, its orbit was changed to five and one half 
years. The third orbit required twenty years to com- 
plete its revolution. The comets represented in the 
cut are similar to those which appeared in the years 
1680 and 1811. They are some of the most remarka- 
ble that have been seen. They move in different and 
various revolutions around the sun, The comet which 

10. What is said of the length of a comet's train? 11. Why is it 
thought that comets contain very little matter ? Are they affected by 
the contact with other bodies ? 12. For what is the year 1770 remarka- 
ble ? What effect did it produce on the earth ? On Jupiter ? What 
was its orbit at first ? What change occurred ? What comets are the 
most remarkable ? 



HALLEY S C0MF:T. 



97 



visited our firiTiaiiient in 1680, was the first whose mo- 
tions were explained on mathematical laws and princi- 
ples by Sir Isaac Newton. 




COMETS. 

13. There are three comets whose revolution and 
course have been ascertained. One is called Halley^s 
comet, because he predicted its return. When it ap- 
peared in 1305, it was very large, and its train reached 
from the horizon to the zenith. Terror and fear filled 



12. What is peculiar to the comet of 1G80 ? 13. The laws of how 
many comets have been discovered ? What is the first called 1 Why? 
Describe its appearance in 1305 ? 
9 



98 COMETS. 

the minds of all beholders. The Pope of Rome had 
prayers offered in all the public churches at noon- 
day, to appease the wrath of his offended Deity. The 
churches and convents were crowded with trembling 
suppliants, who came with their purses in their hands, 
to purchase the remission of their sins. It was a com- 
mon practice in olden times, for the common people, 
when they wished to commit any sin, to buy the confes- 
sion of it before it was committed, or to pay for its 
remission afterward. 

14. Over three hundred years since, Tetzel trav- 
eled through Germany to obtain the people's money, 
and to grant them permission to commit different sins. 
A certain person applied to Tetzel, and told him that he 
wished to take revenge on a gentleman, and offered to 
pay him ten crowns if he would grant him permission 
to do so, and give him a letter which would free him 
from any obligation to his enemy. Tetzel agreed to 
this proposal, if the gentleman would give him thirty 
crowns, to which he consented. Soon after, Tetzel left 
the place ; but he had not proceeded far, when this 
gentleman, with some of his servants, waylaid him, gave 
him a beating, and took away his large bag of money. 
Tetzel was very much enraged at this unexpected 
encounter, and brought the case before the judges, but 
could obtain no recompense from Duke George, because 
the gentleman had a special permit in writing to commit 
the deed, which Tetzel himself had granted. 

15. But, happily, this fear and superstition have 



13. What course did the Pope of Rome pursue ? What did the people 
do? What was a common custom among them ? 14. Relate the anec- 
dote of the gentleman and Tetzel ? VVhy could Tetzel obtain no recom- 
pense 1 



BlEl.A c5 COMET. 99 

passed away before the unfoldings of the triumphs of 
science. Halley's comet again appeared in 1759, but 
it was so far distant that it could be seen only through 
the telescope. It again appeared in 1835, and will 
probably appear again in 1910 or '11. It performs 
its revolution in seventy-five years. At its greatest dis- 
tance from the sun, it is nearly two thousand millions 
of miles from the orbit of Herschel, as it is twice the 
distance of Herschel from the sun. This comet is a 
very small one, although its vapor occupies great space; 
therefore, should ii approach quite near to the earth, its 
effect would not be very great. 

16. The second remarkable comet is Biela's. This 
completes its revolution in about seven years. In 1832, 
it came very near the orbit of the earth. If it had 
remained in its place one month longer, the earth 
would have passed through a portion of the comet's 
train. Considerable anxiety and alarm were felt by 
many persons in reference to it. If the nucleus be a 
light, vapory matter, and the earth should make its 
way directly through the comet. Professor Olmsted 
considers that it is not probable a single particle 
of the comet would reach the earth, or if it did, the 
portions arrested by the earth would be inflamed by 
the atmosphere, and would exhibit, on a more magnifi- 
cent scale, the phenomena of shooting stars, or meteoric 
showers. 

15. Is there as much superstition at the present time 1 When was 
Halley's comet again visible ? What was its appearance ? When will it 
be seen again ? What is the time of its revolution ? How far distant is 
it from Herschel? What is its size? What follows from this? 
16. What is the second remarkable comet? What is the period of its 
revolution ? What is said of its appearance in 1832 ? What would be 
the consequence if the earth should pass through this comet ? 



100 COMETS. 

17. The third comet which has been predicted with 
certainty is called Encke's ; it is so transparent that it 
has been called the " ghost of a world." This is a 
very small comet, and completes its revolution in three 
years and one third. By means of this comet, it has 
been discovered that the planets move through a medi- 
um, or kind of air or atmosphere, and that they do not 
pass through a vacuum or empty space. This atmos- 
phere sometimes retards their motions, as this comet 
now performs its revolution in two days less than for- 
merly. Astronomers have predicted that Pringle's 
comet, which has not been seen for two hundred and 
ninety years, will appear during the present year, 1848. 

18. Comets, like the planets, shine by reflected light 
from the sun. The number of comets which belong 
to our solar system is very great ; they are almost as 
numerous as the fish in the sea. About seven hundred 
have been observed since the Christian era. Great 
numbers escape notice, because they pass above the 
horizon in the day-time. One historian mentions that, 
sixty years before the Christian era, a total eclipse 
of the sun occurred, when a very large and splendid 
comet was observed near the sun. 

19. What the mission or use of these erratic wander- 
ers to the earth can be, conjecture can alone answer. 
We know that not a particle of animate or inanimate 
matter is created which is not designed to answer some 

17. What is the third comet which has been predicted? What is its 
size? What has it been called ? What is the period of its revolution? 
What discovery has been made by means of this comet ? What comet 
has been predicted to appear in 1848 ? 18. What is the light of comets? 
What is said of the number of comets ? Why do we not see all that are 
near us ? How was this fact known ? 19. In reference to what are we 
ignorant ? 



ALL THINGS SUBJECT TO LAW. 101 

specific purpose — to form some link in the great chain 
which extends from the lowest creature of God's cre- 
ation to man, the highest, thence to angels, archangels, 
and even reaching to the throne of God. There is not 
an insect that crawls over God's footstool, but fulfils 
its destiny. So intimate is this connection between one 
grade and another, that in whatever part the chain be 
severed, the whole is affected. 

20. Law governs all things around us ; even the 
most minute animalcula has its time to sleep, its time 
to wake, to breathe, live, and die. We find that the 
planetary worlds are also governed by laws fixed and 
immutable ; that these orbs roil through the depths of 
space, not in a hap-hazard, chance-like manner, but that 
they move as regularly as an army of trained soldiers 
at the beat of the drum. They are all at relative dis- 
tances from the sun and each other, and perform their 
respective revolutions without any collision, from in- 
finity to infinity. 

21. Some may say that these eccentric comets are 
exceptions to the general rule, that law governs the 
universe. This view of the case would result from 
our own ignorance. As far as investigations have 
been made, they prove that comets move in regular 
orbits ; we can but hope that future time will reveal 
more concerning these mysterious visitants. Per- 
chance some lad who reads these pages may be the 
one who will penetrate the mystic veil, and track the 
wandering comet as it speeds its way from planet to 

19. What things do we know ? 20. What governs all things ? Ex- 
plain this ideal How does this apply to the planetary world 7 
21. What will some say about the comets ? From what does that view 
result ? What do all investigations prove 1 What may the future do ? 
9* 



102 COMETS. 

planet, from world to world, and may not only be a 
second Herschel, but progress farther onward through 
the mazes of science, and explore regions of worlds 
that it never entered into the mind of Herschel to 



conceive. 



Lives of great men should remind you, 
You can make your lives sublime ; 

And, departing, leave behind you 
Footprints in the sands of Time." 



21. Why should all be encouraged to study ? What can children 



MAGNIFICENCE OF THE STARS. ) 03 



CHAPTER IX. 

FIXED STARS. 

1. When a German has been long away from his 
home, the place of his nativity, on his return, as the 
lovely and beautiful Rhine — a river in Germany — with 
its picturesque scenery, appears in sight, with a heart 
almost bursting with admiration, he exclaims, " The 
Rhine ! the Rhine !" 1^ our eyes were to be darkened, 
and our sight rendered dim for a brief space, when 
sight was restored, we should look upward and ex- 
claim, with feelings of rapture and delight. The stars 1 
the stars 1 

2. Said an old man, who had not been able to dis- 
cern the stars in our firmament for nearly forty years, 
but whose vision was afterward partially restored, 
" I had never conceived the idea of the magnificence 
of the starry worlds." Those of us who admire them 
the most, fail much in duly appreciating their wonders 
and glory. 

3. Besides the sun, the primary planets, with their 
satellites, and the comets, there are an innumerable 
number of stars that twinkle above us in distant 
regions in God's firmament. 

What is the subject of chapter ninth ? 1. Describe the feelings of a 
German who returns to his home after a long absence ? When should 
we enjoy the stars in a great degree ? 2. Relate the anecdote of the 
old man? Can we admire them too much? 3. Are there any other 
heavenly bodies besides the planets and comets ? 



104 FIXED STARS. 

4. The stars are called fixed stars, because they 
appear to retain the same situations with respect to 
each other. 

5. The NUMBER of the fixed stars is not known. In 
a clear night, as many as one thousand glitter in our 
firmament ; but there are probably thousands so far 
distant that they will never be seen with the aid even 
of telescopes. 

6. They do not reflect the light of the sun, as is 
the case whh the planets, because they are more than 
two hundred thousand times as distant from the sun as 
the earth is. The sun would appear to them but as a 
star. The nearest star is more than twenty billions 
of miles from the earth ; and it would take light 
sixty thousand years to reach the earth from some of 
the most distant stars. 

7. The stars are much larger than our earth. Dr. 
Wollaston, an English astronomer, measured — by 
means of an instrument called a photometer — some 
of the stars ; he thinks that Sirius is equal in size to 
fourteen of our suns. 

8. Each one of these stars is probably a sun, sur- 
rounded by its primary and secondary planets. By 
means of a telescope, as many as two hundred millions 
are seen. When we think that each one of these glit- 
tering points is the centre of a universe as vast, and 
perhaps more extensive than our solar system, we 

4. What are they called ? Why ? 5. What is their number ? How- 
many can be seen in a clear night? Why are they not all visible ? 6. 
How do they differ from the planets? How do we know this to be the 
case ? How far distant is the nearest star ? How long would it take 
light to reach the earth ? 7. What is the size of the stars ? What exper- 
iment did Dr. Wollaston try ? How large is Sirius ? 8. What is each 
star considered ? How many can be seen through a telescope ? 



MAGNITUDES OF THE STARS. 105 

shall BEGIN to form some feeble conception of the 
immensity and grandeur of the works of the Deity. 
When om' spirits are divested of these mortal clogs, 
which fetter and bind the soul to the confines of earth, 
we shall be permitted to wing our flight among these 
celestial habitations ; shall then understand more of 
their structure, their nature, their physical and spiritual 
elements. 

9. The fixed stars are easily distinguished from the 
planets by their twinkling light ; the light of the 
planets is steady, clear, and uniform. 

10. The stars are divided into different classes, with 
respect to their size or magnitudes. Those stars 
which are the brightest, are of the first magnitude. 
There are about fifteen or twenty which belong to 
this class. The next brightest are of the second mag- 
nitude. There are about fifty or sixty which belong 
to this class. Two hundred of the next brilliant 
belong to the third class or magnitude, and so on, 
to the SIXTH magnitude. There are many other stars, 
called TELESCOPIC stars, visible through a telescope. 
These have been divided into eighteen magnitudes. 

11. The stars are also grouped and classified to- 
gether, and are divided into constellations. These 
will be more fully explained in another place. 

8. When shall we begin to form some idea of the grandeur of the 
works of the Deity ? When will our understandings be enlarged ? 
What shall we be able to understand ? 9. How are the stars distin- 
guished from the planets ? 10. With reference to what ai'e the stars divi- 
ded ? What are the brightest stars called ? How many belong to this 
class ? What are the next brightest called 1 How many are there in 
this class ? How many belong to the third class ? How many mag? 
nitudes are there ? What are telescopic stars ? Into how many classes 
have these been divided ? 11. What are the general divisions of the 
stars ? 



106 FIXED STARS. 

12. Those stars whose brilliancy changes, or does 
not always remain the same, are called variable stars. 
There is one bright particular star, which appears 
every year, and is very bright for the space of two 
weeks. It is then a star of second magnitude. But 
it gradually loses its brightness for three months until 
it is invisible ; it remains thus for four or five months, 
when it again appears in sight, and increases in bright- 
ness till the time for it to be again obscured. This 
star is in the constellation called the Whale. 

13. The cause of this singular phenomenon is not 
known. Many theories and causes have been as- 
signed for it, the most plausible of which is, that one of 
the planets which revolves around it passes between 
it and the earth, so that the star or sun is eclipsed. 
Some stars are visible for a time, and then are not seen 
for twenty or thirty years. Many stars, which are 
distinguished for their splendor and brilliancy, have 
suddenly disappeared from our sky ; others, which 
were not known to the ancients, have as suddenly 
appeared. These are called temporary stars. 

14. In 1562, Tycho Brahe, a celebrated astronomer, 
saw a star in the constellation of Cassiopea, which 
he knew was not there previous to the evening on 
which he witnessed it. This was as bright as a star 
of the first magnitude, and increased so much in bril- 
liancy, that it exceeded the brightest of the planets, 
and was seen even at mid-day. After it had been 

12. What are variable stars ? What is an example ? Does its bril- 
liancy continue ? Where is this star ? 13. What is said of the cause of 
this phenomenon ? Which is the most plausible 1 What are temporary- 
stars 1 14. What fact is related of Tycho Brahe ? What was the nature 
of this stE^r ? 



CREATIOX AND DESTEUCTJOX OF STARS. 107 

visible for sixteen months, it gradually diminished, and 
in three months entirely disappeared. Its color was 
variegated, first of dazzUng white, then a reddish yel- 
low, and lastly of an ashy paleness, in which its light 
expired. Many predicted its return in one hundred 
and fifty years, but it has never again appeared. The 
change of color would render the idea plausible, that 
the bright light was produced by the conflagration of 
some bright world. 

15. One astronomer has remarked that the disappear- 
ance of stars may be the destruction of systems at the 
time appointed by the Deity for the probation of its 
inhabitants, and that the appearance of new stars may 
be the formation of new systems, for new races of 
beings, then called into existence to adore the works of 
their Creator. 

16. Dr. Good remarks, that "worlds and systems of 
worlds are not only perpetually creating, but also per- 
petually disappearing. It is an extraordinary fact, that 
wdthin the last century, not less than thirteen stars in 
different constellations appear to have totally perished, 
and ten new stars to have been created. In many in- 
stances it is an unquestionable fact that the stars them- 
selves, the supposed habitations of other kinds or or- 
ders of intelligent beings, together with the different 
planets, by which it is probable they were surrounded, 
have utterly vanished, and the spots which they occu- 

14. what became of the star discovered in the constellation of Cassio- 
pea ? What was its color *? What did some predict ? Was this cor- 
rect ? What would the change of its color imply 1 15. How do some 
account for the disappearance of stars ? Appearance of new stars ? 
16. What are Dr. Good's ideas conerning these things ? How many 
St^rs have disappeared ? How many have been created ? What is an 
unquestionable fact ? 



108 FIXED STARS. 

pied in the heavens have become blanks ! What has 
befallen other systems, will assuredly befall our ov^n. 
Of the time and the manner we know nothing, but the 
fact is incontrovertible ; it is foretold by revelation, it 
is inscribed in the heavens, it is felt through the earth." 

17. That the earth will be consumed at some future 
day, is predicted in Holy Writ. Many were very 
anxious at the time the appearance of Encke's comet 
was predicted, and thought that this would be the day 
of the final end of all things. But the comet came, and 
has passed away, and the earth still revolves in her 
orbit, a monument of God's goodness and mercy. 

18. Many of the followers of Miller have had anxious 
doubts, and thought they knew the time when "the 
heavens and the earth would be gathered together as a 
scroll, and pass away ;" but their fears proved delu- 
sions, their arguments and reasonings proved fallacious, 
and they have lived to see their folly. It is not right 
for our minds to be troubled with these fears, which at 
best are only speculations ; we should recollect that 
whether our earth is to be destroyed this year, or 
whether it will roll on through countless ages, it is 
under the care and direction of " Him who doeth all 
things well." 

19. Double stars are those stars which appear 
single to the naked eye, but are found to be composed 
of two or three, when viewed through a telescope. 
One star revolves around another. These are called 
BINARY STARS. They do not revolve as one primary 

16. Why will this state of things probably affect the earth 1 17. What 
is predicted in Holy Writ 1 What caused anxiety to many? 18. What 
is said of the followers of Miller? What did their feai'S and arguments 
prove 1 Why should we not be troubled about these things'! 19. What 
are double stars ? What are binary stars 1 



STARS OF DIFFERENT COLORS. 109 

around the sun, but the same as if our sun, with all its 
planets and satellites, revolved around another sun. 
There are many double stars which are near each 
other, but which do not have this motion. 

20. These double stars were first discovered by Sir 
William Herschel, who has been untiring in his astro- 
nomical investigations. When he commenced his dis- 
coveries, he was acquainted with but four ; but during 
his life he observed two thousand four hundred. About 
fo-ur or five thousand of these double stars have been 
discovered by the two Herschels ; also many triple 
stars, and auADRUPLE stars, have been observed by them. 

21. The double stars are of various colors. Ac- 
cording to Sir John Herschel, they exhibit the curious 
and beautiful phenomenon of contrasted or compliment- 
ary colors. By compUmentary colors is meant any 
two that, together, wall produce white light. " The 
larger star is generally of a ruddy or orange hue, and 
the smaller blue or green. What a variety of illumin- 
ation two SUNS, one red and the other green, or one 
yellow and the other blue, must afford to a planet. And 
what charming contrasts and grateful vicissitudes a red 
and green day, alternating with a white one and with 
darkness, might arise from the presence or absence of 
one or the other, or both, above the horizon. Insulated 
stars of a red color, almost as deep as that of blood, 
occur in many parts of the heavens, but no green or 

19. How do they revolve ? Do all have this motion ? 20. By whom 
were they discovered ? What is the extent of his observations ? How 
many did both of the Herschels discover? 21. What are the colors of 
the double stars ? What are complimentary colors ? What is the eflfect 
of these ? What would arise from the presence or absence of one or 
both of the stars ? ^Vhat stars are often seen in different parts of thg 
heavens ? What kind have never been noticed alone ? 
10 



110 FIXED STARS. 

blue star had been noticed unassociated with a com- 
panion, brighter than itself." 

22. It may be asked why the stars were created, 
what their use and purpose are, and what end they 
accomplish in the economy of God's universe. Dick, 
in his celestial scenery, says, " It could not have been 
to adorn the sky that the stars are made, for by far the 
greatest part of them are wholly invisible to the naked 
eye ; nor as landmarks to the navigator, for only a 
small portion of them are adapted to this purpose ; nor 
to influence the earth by their attractions, since their 
distance renders such an effect entirely useless. If 
then, they are suns, and if they exert no important 
agencies on our world, but are bodies adapted to the 
same purpose that our sun is, it is as rational to suppose 
that they were made to give light and heat, as that the 
eye was made for seeing, or the ear for hearing. If 
they were made to give light and heat, there would 
certainly be beings who would require these elements 
for existence ; hence there are a plurality of worlds." 

23. Galileo, who invented the telescope, formed the 
design of composing a map of the stars, as they ap- 
peared when he viewed them through his telescope. 
When he commenced, he counted twenty-one distinct 
stars in the space which he had seen through smaller 
telescopes to be occupied by one spot of dim light, 
or about five hundred in a square degree. He finally 
abandoned his attempt, but modern astronomers have 
made discoveries of vast quantities of these stars, 
which had before escaped observation. 

22. What questions might be asked concerniag the stars ? For what 
purposes does Dick say that the stars could not have been made? 
What conclusions follow from this ? 23. What design did Galileo form 7 
Why did he abandon this idea ? What have modern astronomers done ? 



NAMES OF CONSTELLATIONS SYMBOLICAL. Ill 



CHAPTER X. 

CONSTELLATIONS. 

1. In order to avoid confusion, and to enable the 
observer to distinguish the different stars, the ancients 
divided them into groups, or constellations. 

2. La Place mantains that this division of the stars 
was made thirteen or fourteen hundred years before 
the Christian era, as the first celestial globe was made 
aj; this time, on which the constellations were inserted. 
Frequent reference is made to these constellations, by 
the sacred writers. Their names are very fanciful, and 
are founded on a supposed resemblance to the objects 
which they designate ; but in very few cases is this re- 
semblance perceptible. 

3. They are probably the symbols or hieroglyphics 
by which the ancient Egyptians intended to transmit to 
posterity a record of their deeds, their religion, and 
their history. 

4. The religion of the ancient Grecians, Egyptians, 
and other nations, consisted in having a god for every 
passion and virtue, and in paying deference to the par- 
ticular god which their own inclination prompted. 
Thus, some in ancient days worshipped Bacchus, who 
was the god of wine ; others, Minerva, the goddess of 

What is the subject of chapter tenth? 1. Why did the ancients make 
this division ? 2. When was this division made ? How is this known 
to be the case 1 By whom are these often mentioned ? What is said of 
their names ? 3. What is probably their design ? 4. In what did the 
rehgion of the ancient nations consist ? What are some of their god a? 



112 CONSTELLATIONS. 

wisdom, etc., etc. So that it does not appear at all 
wonderful that they should "give to the stars their 
names." These names are retained by modern astron- 
omers, for the sake of convenience, as the constellations 
are more easily learned and remembered by means of 
them. 

5. The stars in the constellations are named by the 
letters of the Greek alphabet. The largest star is 
called by the first letter, the next by the second, and so 
on to the end ; and if there are more stars than letters 
in the Greek alphabet, the English is used ; after 
which, numbers are employed. Sometimes there are 
several thousand stars in one constellation. 

6. Catalogues of these stars have been made by 
Herschel and other astronomers, in which the location 
and situation of each star are placed ; also, their po- 
sition and number, in the same manner that directories 
are made in large cities to give the names of individ- 
uals, and the street and number of the house where 
they live. 

7. The catalogue made by Hipparchus contains one 
thousand and twenty-two stars, the most that can be 
seen by the naked eye ; not more than three thousand 
can be counted, when an observer stands on the 
Equator, and can see the stars in both the northern 
and southern hemispheres, though millions can be 
seen through large telescopes. 

8. The firmament has been divided into the north- 

4. Why are the names of the gods retained 1 5. In what way are 
the stars named ? What is sometimes the number in one constellation ? 
6. For what pm'pose have catalogues been made? 7. Who made a cata- 
logue ? How many stars did it contain ? What is the greatest number 
that can be seen ? In what position ? 8, What is the general division 
of the firmament ? 



DIVISION OF THE FIRMAMEXT. 113 

ern and southern hemispheres, and the zodiac. 
There are thirty- four constellations in the northern 
hemisphere, forty-seven in the southern, and twelve 
in the zodiac. There are ninety-three constellations 
in all. 

9. The zodiac is eight degrees each side of the 
ecliptic ; hence it is sixteen degrees in breadth. The 
sun, and all the planets, are never seen farther from 
the ecliptic than the zodiac. This zodiac is divided 
into twelve signs. The constellations and signs of the 
zodiac have the same name, and were formerly to- 
gether in the same place ; but there is now thirty de- 
grees difference between them. 

10. The name^ of some of the principal constella- 
tions will be given, and particular reference will be 
made to some of the largest, and those which can be 
most easily traced in our firmament. The names are 
derived from the Latin, the English of which w\\\ be 
given, also the character by which they are represented 
on the celestial globe. 

11. CONSTELLATIONS OF THE ZODIAC. 

Aries '^ — The Ram. Libra dlb — The Balance. 

Taurus ^— The Bull. Scorpio m— The Scorpion. 

Gemini n — The Twins. Saggitarius ^ — The Archer. 

Cancer 5:5 — The Crab. Capricornus V5 — The Goat. 

Leo ^ — The Lion. Aquarius ^ — The Water Bearer. 

Virgo r(^ — The Virgin. Pisces ^— The Fishes. 

8. How many constellations are there in each division of the firma- 
ment? How many in all united? 9. What is the zodiac ? What are 
situated in the zodiac ? What are the divisions of the zodiac ? What is 
the difference between the signs and the constellations ? 10. What will 
be given? From what are these names mostly derived ? 11. Name the 
constellatious of the zodiac ? 

10* 



114 



CONSTELLATIONS. 



12. CONSTELLATIONS OF THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. 



Andromeda. 

Perseus. 

Auriga — -Wagoner. 

Lynx. 

Leo Minor — Little Lion. 

Coma Berenices — Berenice's 

Bootes. 

Corona Borealis — N. Crown. 

Hercules. 

Ophiucus. 

Aquila — Eagle. 



Hair. 



D el phinus — Dolphin . 

Pegasus — Winged Horse. 

Ursa Minor — Little Bear. 

Ursa Major — Great Bear. 

Draco — Dragon. 

Cepheus — King. 

Cassiopea — Lady in Chair. 

Cygnus — Swan. 

Lyra — Lyre. 

Camelopardalis — Camel Leopard. 



13. CONSTELLATIONS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 



Cetus — Whale. 

Orion. 

Canis Major — Large Dog. 

Canis Minor — Little Dog. 

Hydra — Goat. 

Cervus — Crow. 

Crux — Crow. 

Argo-Navis — Ship. 

Centaurus — Centaur. 

Grus — Crane. 



Columba — Dove. 
Eridanus — Rhine. 
Indus — Indian. 
Lepus — Hare 
Lupus — Wolf. 
Pave — Peacock. 
Phoenix — Bird. 

Pisces Australis — Southern Fish. 
Triangular Astrale — Southern Tri- 
angle. 



14. There are a number of constellations which are 
situated around the North Pole. The one we shall 
first examine is Ursa Major, or Great Bear. 

URSA MAJOR, OR GREAT BEAR. 

1. Ursa Major is a very large constellation, one of 
the most celebrated in the northern hemisphere. It is 
alwaj^s above the horiz'on, and is one of the most con- 
spicuous clusters in the firmament. Nearly every one 

12. Name the constellations of the northern hemisphere ? 13. Of the 
southern hemisphere? 14. What is the first constellation mentioned? 
1. What is said of this constellation ? What is its situation ? 



URSA MAJOR. 115 

can trace Ursa Major, if they are entirely unacquainted 
with astronomy. 



URSA BIAJOR, OR GREAT BEAR. 

2. It is composed of eighty-seven visible stars, but 
can readily be distinguished by the form of a dipper, 
which seven of its stars make in the heavens. Four 
of its stars in the body of the animal form the basin, 
and three form the curve, or handle, in the tail, as 
will be seen by the dotted lines in the cut. 

3. It is a very remarkable circumstance, that a tribe 
of the earliest Arabs in Asia, and a very remote nation 
of American Indians, called the Iroquois, should have 
given the same name to this constellation, when there 
is no resemblance to a bear in its form, or situation 
of its stars. 

4. There are also accounts that different nations, 
who have held no intercourse with each other, have 
divided the zodiac into the same number of constella- 
tions, and have given to them nearly the same names, 
which represent either the twelve months, or the 
seasons of the year. 

2. Of how many stars is it composed? How is it readily distin- 
guished ? 3. What remarkable circumstance is recorded ? 4. What 
other strikin" fact is mentioned ? 



116 



CONSTELLATIONS. 



5. The head of the Great Bear is composed of a 
number of small stars, and is situated west of the 
dipper. The feet are composed of two small stars. 
But this constellation is always recognized by the seven 
stars which form the dipper. The two stars in the part 
of the dipper opposite to the handle, are called 
POINTERS, because a line drawn through them, points 
or leads to the North Pole star. 

6. It is supposed that the ancients formed the stars 
near the North Pole into bears, because those regions 
abound with that animal, which generally remains in 
that vicinity, and does not wander about as extensively 
as many animals do. 

7. This is an important constellation to the mariner ; 
for, if he sails in unknown seas, and loses his way, he 
need only find this constellation, and can then easily 
trace out the north star, ascertain the points of his 
compass, and pursue his course in safety. The an- 
cient Egyptians and Arabians were guided in theii: 
journeyings through the sandy deserts by this dipper. 

URSA MINOR OR LITTLE BEAR. 

1. Ursa Minor is situated nearer the North Pole 
than any other constellation. It contains twenty-four 
stars ; but only seven are conspicuous. These seven 
stars form a small dipper, which is about half as 
large as that in the Great Bear, and is situated in an 

5. Of what are the head and feet of the Great Bear composed ? 
What are two of the stars called ? Why ? Where are they sit- 
uated ? 6. Why is it thought that the ancients fornaed these stars into 
bears? 7. To whom is this an important constellation? Why? To 
whom was it of great assistance ? 1. Where is Ursa Minor situated ? Of 
how many stars is it composed ? Which stars are conspicuous % What do 
they form ? How is it situated ? 



URSA MINOR. 117 

inverted position to it. The handle of the Uttle dipper 
is turned toward the basin of the great dipper. 



DRACO URSA MINOR OR LITTLE BEAR. 

2. The first star in the handle is the Polar star, 
which is about one degree and a half from the Pole. 
This constellation is very easily traced. If we im- 
agine a straight line to extend from the pointers in the 
Great Bear, it will pass through the first or Pole star 
in the handle of the Small Bear. 

3. Latitude can be computed by means of the Polar 
star. 

4. Thales, of Miletus, is said to have invented this 
constellation, or to have brought the knowledge of it 
from Phoenice into Greece. 

DRACO OR THE DRAGON. 

1. Between the constellations of Ursa Major and 
Ursa Minor, the winding, serpentine folds of the con- 
stellation Draco is situated, as will be seen by referring 
to the last cut. It is composed of eighty stars, and is 



2. What is the first star called ? In what way is this constellation traced ? 
3. Is this star of any importance ? 4. Who invented this constellation 1 1 , 
What is situated between Ursa Major and Ursa Minor ? Of how many 
stars is it composed ? 



118 COSTELLATIONS. 

about as far from Ursa Minor, as that is distant from 
Ursa Major. Its tail is situated between the pointers 
and the Pole star. This constellation can be easily dis- 
tinguished by four stars in the head, which form an 
irregular square, as is represented in the cut. 

2. It was from one of these stars that aberration of 
LIGHT was discovered. By aberration of light is meant, 
that we do not see the stars in the actual position 
which they occupy in the heavens, on account of the 
motion of the earth. Therefore, when an observer 
wishes to find a star with his telescope, he has 
reference to this fact, and adjusts his instrument ac- 
cordingly. 

3. The Egyptians represented the heavens by a 
serpent, the scales of which were stars. 

4. The constellation of Draco is situated near the 
pole of the ecliptic, and as it winds around the North 
Pole, the Egyptians thought it was a good emblem of 
the motion of the pole of the equator around the pole 
of the ecliptic. Draco was formerly called the Polar 
constellation, before Ursa Minor was discovered. 

CEPHEUS. 

1. Cepheus is situated between Ursa Minor and 
Cassiopea, and is east of the breast of the Dragon. If 
a line be drawn through the pointers to the North 
star, and extended about the same distance beyond, it 
would pass through the constellation Cepheus. 

1. Where is the tail of Draco represented? By what means is this 
constellation distinguished ? 2. What was discovered from one of these 
stars ? What is meant by aberration of light ? What follows from this ? 
3. How did the Egyptians represent the heavens ? 4. Near what is 
Draco located ? What did the Egyptians consider it to be ? 1. Where 
is Cepheus situated ? How can this be found ? 



CEPHEUS. 



119 



2. This constellation can always be seen at every 
hour in the night, when the sky is clear. It is com- 
posed of thirty-five stars. It can be distinguished by 
three stars which forai a curve line ; one of these stars 
is situated in the left shoulder, one is in his girdle, 
and the third is in his knee. There are three stars in 
the crown of Cepheus, which form a triangle. 




CEPHEUS. 



3. Cepheus is represented as a king, w^ith a crown 
or diadem of stars on his head, a sceptre in his right 
hand, which is extended toward Cassiopea, and with 
his left foot over the pole. 

4. As you have learned, the ancients had many gods. 
Every signal act which their kings or nobles performed, 
was enshrined in indelible characters ; sometimes the 
stars were called after their names, and sometimes 
their deeds were commemorated by monuments of 
marble, erected in public places. 

2. When is it seen? Of how many stars is it composed? In what 
way can it be distinguished ? Where are these stars located ? What 
other stars are conspicuous'? 3. How is Cepheus represented? 4. 
What custom prevailed among the ancients ? 



120 



COXSTELLATIOXS. 



5. Cepheus was King of Ethiopia, and was one of 
the Argonauts who accompanied Jason in pursuit of 
the golden fleece ; hence it is supposed that he was 
honored by having his name given to this constel- 
lation. 

6. The Argonautic expedition was the first that 
was undertaken by the early Grecians. Some sup- 
pose that its object was to extend commerce to the 
Black Sea. Others say that Jason commanded it to 
recover som.e treasures which had been taken from 
him by the King of Colchis, in Asia. 




CASSIOPEA. 

1. Next to Cepheus, and directly opposite to Ursa 
Major, is Cassiopea. This constellation is represented 
on the celestial globe by a woman seated in a chair. 
She holds in her left hand a branch of the palm-tree, 
and in her right a portion of her head-dress. 

2. This is a beautiful constellation. It contains 
fifty-five stars, and can be seen at any hour in the 

5. Who was Cepheus ? How was he honored ? 6. What is the 
Argonautic expedition? 1. What constellation is next mentioned? 
How is this represented ? 2. Of how many stars is this composed ? 



CAS5I0PEA. 121 

night, at every season of the year. Four stars form 
the legs, and two the back of the chah'. One of its 
stars, Caph, is used to determine the latitude of places. 
It also designates on which side of the Pole the Polar 
star is situated, as it does not always occupy the same 
place. It was in the constellation Cassiopea, a few 
degrees from Caph, that a bright star was lost, or 
obscured from sight. The place which knew it once 
knows it no more. 

3. Cassiopea, for whom this constellation was 
named, was the wife and queen of Cepheus, Kincr of 
Ethiopia. History says that she was a most beau= 
tiful queen. She was so vain of her beauty, that 
she boasted that she was more lovely than Juno, the 
sister of Jupiter — who was said to be the father of 
the gods of the ancients — and surpassed the sea-nymphs, 
the Nereides, in grace and elegance. The latter felt 
themselves insulted, and complained to Neptune, the 
god of the sea. He therefore sent a frightful monster 
to ravage her coasts, as a punishment for her vanity. 

4. The above anecdote is a fabulous story as far as 
the gods — who were only imaginary beings — are con- 
cerned, though the queen really existed, and was actual- 
ly a very beautiful woman. 

AKDROMEDA. 

1. Next to Cassiopea is Andromeda, which is rep- 
resented as a wom^n with her arms extended ; each 
of her wrists is chained to a rock. 

2. When is Cassiopea visible ? What are its principal stars ? For 
what is Caph used ? What is there remarkable about this constellation ? 
3. Who was Cassiopea ? What was her character 1 Whom did she in- 
sult ? What was the consequence ? 4. What is the nature of the story ? 
1. How is Andromeda represented ? 
11 



122 



CONSTELLATIONS. 



2. Andromeda contains sixty-six stars, but may be 
distinguished by three stars, which form a straight 
line ; one is in the foot, another is in the girdle, and a 
third is in the left shoulder ; there is also one in the 
head, which makes a curve with those in the body. 




ANDr.Or.IED.\, 



3. Andromeda was the daughter of Cepheus and 
Cassiopea. The queen was very much attached to 
her daughter. Neptune and the sea-nymphs were not 
satisfied with ravaging the country of Cassiopea, but 
they commanded that she should chain her daughter 
to a desert rock, near the sea, and there leave her 
to be devoured. 

4. But at the moment when the sea-monster was 
about to devour her, Perseus, a fabulous being, saw 
her, and promised to liberate her, if her father would 
give her to him in marriage. This request was 
<2franted, and the sea-monster was changed into a 



2. How many stars are there in this constellation? How is it dis- 
tinguished ? "Wijere are these stars situated 1 3. Who was Andromeda ? 
What wa5 Cassiopea commanded to do ? 4. What vvas the result 7 



CONSTELLATIONS. 



123 



rock by the sight of a trophy which Perseus held in 
his hand. 

5. Mr. Burritt, in his excellent work, the Geography 
of the Heavens, says that the interpretation of this 
fable may be, that Andromeda was engaged to be mar- 
ried to some monster of a sea captain, who attempted 
to carry her away, but was prevented by another 
more gallant and successful rival. 




PERSEUS. 



1. South from Cassiopea, and west from Andromeda, 
is the constellation of Perseus. 

2. He is represented in the cut as a man with a 
sword in his right hand, aud the head of Medusa, one 
of the Gorgons, in his left. He has on his head the 
helmet of Pluto, which was said to have the power to 
render the wearer invisible ; on his breast he wears the 
shining buckle of Minerva, and his feet are supplied 



5. What interpretation does Mr. Burritt give to this fable ? 1. Where 
is Perseus situated ? 2. How is he represented ? 



124 CONSTELLATIONS. 

with wings from Mercury, which enabled him to fly 
through the air with safety. 

3. Perseus was a son of one of the gods. When a 
great feast was about to be made fo-r a certain king, 
who had been very kind and hospitable to him, every 
one was expected to present the king with a beauti- 
ful horse. He engaged to bring the head of one of the 
Gorgons as a trophy, or expression of his regards to 
the king. 

4. The Gorgons were fabulous monsters, represented 
with serpents around their heads for hair, hands of 
brass, and their bodies covered v/ith scales, which were 
so hard that nothing could penetrate them ; they had 
such an expression of countenance, that they turned 
every one who looked at them into stones. 

5. When Perseus came to the place where they were 
asleep, with one blow of his sword he cut off the head 
of one of them, named Medusa, and was immediately 
invisible, on account of his helmet. Perseus then flew 
away, and when he came to Andromeda, who was 
chained to a rock, he changed the se-a-monster into a 
rock, by the sight of the head of Medusa, and liberated 
and married Andromeda. 

6. Such is the story, as related by historians. Im- 
aginative and fictitious as it is, yet it is give.n to you, 
that you may understand what the difl^erent views and 
ideas of the ancients were. 

7. Perseus and the head of Medusa contain sixty- 
seven stars. In the head there is one very bright star, 



3. Who was Perseus? What was celebrated at one time? What 
trophy did Perseus engage to carry to the king? 4. Describe the Goi'- 
gons? 5. Describe the attack of Perseus 7 What did he then do? 
6. Why is this story related? 7. How many stars do they contain? 



TAURUS. 



125 



called Algol. Algeneb is also a bright star in the side 
of Perseus, and makes a right angle with the bright star 
in the foot of Andromeda, which is turned toward Cas- 
siopea. There are also four or five bright stars which 
form a curve line which extends toward Ursa Major. 

8. Many small clusters of stars in this constellation 
render it very beautiful, but they are too small to be 
seen by the naked eye. The star Algol has often dark 
spots on its surface, which prove that, like the sun, it 
turns on its axis. This constellation can be seen every 
pleasant evening, from September till May. 




TAURUS. 

1. The constellation Taurus is situated near the foot 
of Perseus. It is remarkable for two brilliant clusters 
of stars which are visible to the naked eye, called 
Pleiades and Hyades. This constellation contains one 
hundred and forty-one stars. 



7. What are some of the principal stars iu the constellation of Perseus? 
8. What renders this a beautiful constellation ? What is said of Algol 1 
When is this constellation visible 1 1. Where is Taurus situated'? For 
what is it remai'kable 1 How many stars does it contain ? 
11* 



126 CONSTELLATIONS. 

2. The Pleiades were originally seven stars, of 
which only six can now be seen. The fable concern- 
ing these stars is, that they represented the daughters 
of the astronomer who first discovered them. Others 
say that they were seven beautiful sisters, who were 
turned into stars, and that one of them married a mor- 
tal, and was therefore banished from the cluster. These 
can be seen in the shoulders of the animal, in the cut. 

3. The Pleiades were at one time considered the 
" stars of the ocean," because mariners steered their 
courses by them. Professor Madler thinks that the 
Pleiades are the centre of the starry system, the same 
as the sun is considered the centre of the planetary 
system. 

4. The second cluster, called the Hyades, is situated 
in the face of the animal, a short distance from the 
Pleiades, and is easily distinguished by five stars, which 
form the capital letter V. 

5. Taurus is represented by the head and shoulders 
of a bull, as if about to attack Orion. It is thought 
that the constellation received this name from the an- 
cients ; for this animal was worshipped both by the 
Persian and Egyptian nations, under the name of Apis. 
They frequently embalmed — preserved their bodies by 
means of spices — these animals, which would not have 
been the case, if they had not regarded them of great 
value. 

6. Taurus is one of the most interesting of the con- 

2. What were the Pleiades originally ? What is the fable concerning 
them 1 What is another opinion 1 Where are they situated ? 3. What 
were the Pleiades considered? Why? What is Professor Madler's 
opinion ? 4. What is the second cluster, and where is it situated '? How 
is it distinguished ? 5. How is Taurus represented 1 From whom did 
it receive its name 1 Why is this a plausible idea ? 



ORION. 127 

stellations. It can be traced very easily and remem- 
K^ered. 




ORION LEPUS. 

1. Orion is one of the largest and most beautiful of 
the constellations. It is situated southeast from Taurus, 

2. Orion is represented as a man with a club in one 
hand, as if he intended to attack Taurus. He has a 
sword in his belt, and a lion's skin in his hand for a 
shield. A cluster of small stars forms the head. Two 
large stars make the shoulders. One, called Rigel, in the 
left fool, is a star of the first magnitude. Three bright 
stars compose the girdle, and three make his sword. 

3. This constellation is distinguished by a long square, 
called a parallelogram, which the dotted lines in the cut 

6. What is said of Taurus? 1. V>'here is Orion situated? What is 
said of it ? 2. How is Orion represented ? Where are some of the 
principal stars situated ? 3. How is Orion distinguished ? 



128 CONSTELLATONS. 

represent. It is formed by four stars ; one is in each 
shoulder, one is in the left foot, and one is in his right 
knee. In the middle of the parallelogram is the girdle, 
Trailed the three stars, the ell, or yard, because the 
three stars are three degrees in length, and the star in 
the centre divides it into two equal parts, in the same 
manner as the three feet in a yard-stick are divided in 
the centre. 

4. Orion is said to have been a great hunter, and to 
have boasted that his skill was so great that there was 
not a single, animal that he could not kill. As a pun- 
ishment for his vanity, a scorpion sprung from the 
ground and bit his foot, which caused his death. A 
constellation was called for his name. 

5. Orion rises at noon, on the ninth of March, and 
sets at noon, on the twenty-first of June. It was 
thought to be a forerunner of storms and heavy rains^ 
and the ancient mariners saw this constellation rise 
with dread and anxiety. 

6. All the historical accounts of the ancients that we 
have on record, credit the idea that they watched the 
stars very minutely, and regulated their actions by 
their movements, 

LEPUS OR HARE. 

1. Immediately south of Orion is Lepus. It contains 
nineteen stars. The four largest form a square, by 
which it can be distinguished, as in the preceding cut, 

3. Describe ihe parallelogram in the constellation of Orion. What is 
the ell or yard called ? V/hy ? 4. 'What is the history of Orion ? 
5. When does Orion rise and set 1 Why did the ancients regard this 
constellation with terror ? G. What do all the records of the ancients 
show? 1. What constellation is south of Orion ? How many stars does 
it contain 7 How is this distinuuished ? 



CANIS MAJOR. 



129 



2. The hare was an animal which Orion deUghted to 
pursue; hence the cluster or constellation near him 
was called Lepus, and represented by the form of a 
hare. 




CANIS BIAJOR COLUMBA. 

1. Canis Major is a very interesting constellation, 
and is situated in a southeast direction from Orion. It 
is remarkable because it contains the largest and most 
beautiful of the fixed stars, called Sirius. This star is 
said to be fourteen times larger than our sun. 

2. This constellation contains thirty-one stars. It is 
represented by the figure of a dog with its face, or the 
bright star in its face, turned toward Orion. Sirius 
is nearer the earth than any other star, yet it would 
take a single ray of light three years to reach the earth 
from Sirius. 



2. From what did tbis constellation take its name 1 1. Where is Canis 
Major situated 1 For what is it remarkable 1 What is the size of this 
starl 2. How many stars are there in this constellation'? How is it 
represented ? What is the comparative distance of Sirius from the earth? 
How lonj? would it take lisfht to travel to the earth ? 



130 CONSTELLATIONS. 

3. In Africa, the river Nile overflows its banks twice 
during a year. The ancient Egyptians thought that 
the appearance of this star foretold the overflow of 
this river, which they called Sirius ; they therefore 
watched its approach with a great deal of interest. 
They observed that when Sirius was visible in the east 
just before morning, the overflowing of the river im- 
mediately followed ; they therefore represented this 
constellation under the figure of a dog, as symbolical of 
its watchfulness and care for the people. 

4. Many of the inhabitants of Africa determined the 
length of the year by Sirius. The ancients gave the 
name of "dog days" to the latter summer months, on 
account of the influence of this star, together with the 
sun's rays. Sirius is over our heads in the zenith, 
during the day in the summer months, and is seen at 
night in the southern hemisphere. It is visible to us 
only in the winter nights, as the sun is so bright we 
cannot see the stars till he has set, 

COLUMBA. 

1. Columba is a small constellation situated near 
Canis Major, and is represented in the last cut. It con- 
tains ten stars, only two of which can be seen and 
distinguished. The Latin word columba means a dove, 
and it is supposed that this constellation received 
its name from the dove which was sent from Noah's 

3. What is a peculiarity of the river Nile ? What connection did the 
Egyptians think there was between the river and Sirius ? What did 
they observe concerning it ? Why did they represent this constellation 
under the figure of a dog? 4. What was one use of this starl What 
is the origin of the term " dog days ?" Where is Sirius at different sea- 
sons in the year? 1. Where is Columba situated? How many stars 
does it contain ? From what did this constellation receive its name ? 



CANIS MINOR. 131 

ark at the time of the flood, and which returned with a 
branch of the oUve-tree in its mouth. 




C^NIS MINOR. 

1. Above Canis Major is Canis Minor. It contains 
fourteen stars, the most brilliant of which is called 
Procyon. It is a star of the first magnitude, in the 
body of the little dog in the cut. 

2. This star rises in February, a little before Sirius 
in Canis Major. It was therefore watched by the 
ancient Egyptians with much interest, as it was the 
forerunner of the dog star. 

3. According to fable, this was one of Orion's hounds, 
and was therefore placed near him in the heavens. 

BOOTES. 

I. Next back of Ursa Major, Bootes is represented 
as a hunter, with a club in his hand, attended by 
Chara and Asterion, or two greyhounds, as if in pursuit 
of the Great Bear. With it they revolve around the 
north pole. 

1. Where is Canis IMinor ? How many stars does it contain ? Which 
is the most brilliant? 2. Why was this star regarded with interest? 
3. What is the fable concerning it? 1. How is Bootes represented? 
Around what does he revolve ? 



132 



CONSTELLATIONS. 




BOOTES AND BERENICE S HAIR. 

2. This constellation contains fifty-four stars, and is 
easily recognized by means of Arcturus, a very bright 
star in the knee, as is seen in the cut, which is of the 
first magnitude, and has a reddish appearance. There 
are three small stars in its vicinity, which make a 
triangle. 

3. Reference is had to Arcturus, and some of the 
other stars, in the Bible, where the writer says, " Canst 
thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the 
bands of Orion ? Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth 
in his season ? or canst thou guide Arcturus with his 
sons ? Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven ? " 
Mazzaroth is thought to mean all the heavenly bodies 
in the zodiac which, by their revolutions, produce dif- 
ferent seasons and day and night. 

4. Chara and Asterion are composed of a number 



2. How many stars does tlie constellation of Bootes contain ? By 
what is it recognized ? 3. What reference is made to Orion in tho 
Bible 7 Of What are Chara and Asterion composed ? 



Berenice's hair. 13-3 

of stars between Bootes and Ursa Major. Only one 
star in the neck of Chara is remarkable. This is 
called Cor Coroli, or Charles's Heart, because it is 
named after Charles I. 

Berenice's hair. 

1. Berenice's Hair, as you see represented in the cut, 
is a small group of stars which, although not large, are 
quite beautiful. 

2. The stars which compose it, forty-three in num- 
ber, are so small that they are not visible when the 
moon shines brightly. 

3. Berenice was a beautiful lady, w^ho married one of 
the kings of Egypt. At a certain time, when he in- 
tended to engage i-n a dangerous expedition against the 
Assyrians, she made a vow to dedicate her hair, which 
was very beautiful, to Venus, the goddess of beauty, if 
he returned in safety. 

4. In due time her husband returned, and she cut off 
her hair, which was deposited in the temple. This 
was removed in some way. The king regretted the 
loss very much, when one of the astronomers assured 
him that Jupiter had placed it among the stars, as a 
constellation. 

5. We have now described in a brief manner some 
of the principal constellations that glitter in our firma- 
ment, and have also related some of the ancient su- 
perstitions regarding them. This subject presents 
an interesting field for inquiry and investigation. 
When we find one constellation, it incites the desire to 

3. Whicli is the most remarkable star in Chara and Asterion ? 1. What 
is Berenice's Hair? 2. How many stars compose it? What is their 
size? 3. Relate the anecdote of Berenice? 4. What was the result? 
5. What has been described ? What does this subject present ? Why? 

12 



134 - CONSTELLATIONS. 

learn to trace another. They are all, as it were, 
closely bound together in the strong bonds of an asso- 
ciation. One suggests another, and has strong rela- 
tions to the other. Be not weary in gazing at the stars. 
There are bright worlds rolling above us, teeming with 
life, intelligence, and beauty. 

6. Nothing will have a greater tendency to expand 
the mind, or to make us feel our own insignificance 
more, than to reflect well on the idea that our world is 
but a mite in the systems of worlds, and that we are 
but a speck, or as a particle of dust on it, destined to 
live but for a brief space of time, and then passing 
away, to sink into oblivion. Your attention will be 
directed next to the clustering of stars, called nebulje. 

5. Is there a connection between the different constellations '? Why- 
should we never be weary in looking at the stars? 6. What will have a 
tendency to expand the mind ? To what will the attention be next 
directed ? 



NEBULiE. 135 



CHAPTER XI. 

NEBULiE. 

1. You have learned that the stars are grouped 
together into constellations ; but besides this genera] di- 
vision, there is a great quantity of small clusters, which, 
when viewed through a telescope, are seen to consist 
of a large quantity of stars. These are called nebulae, 
and shine with a feeble, white lustre. 

2. The Galaxy, or Milky Way, is supposed to be a 
vast nebula, of which the sun is one of the stars. The 
reason why it appears larger than the small points of 
stars, is because it is nearer to the earth. In forty 
minutes Dr. Herschel saw two hundred and forty-eight 
thousand stars among the nebulae, through his telescope. 

3. Most of the nebulse are round, of a globular form; 
but they are often thick at the centre, as if studded 
with numerous points, and are more scattering on the 
surface. If we look at the Pleiades, we see at first 
but six stars ; but a close inspection with the telescope 
will reveal as many as fifty or sixty. There is a re- 
markable nebula in the constellation of Andromeda. 

4. Nebulce sometimes present the appearance of a 
luminous atmosphere, in which no stars are seen, even 

1. What are nebulse? With what h'ght do they shine? 2. What is 
the Galaxy, or Milky Way 1 Why does it appear so large ? What num- 
ber of stars did Dr. Herschel see through his telescope in forty minutes ? 
3. What is the form of nebulae ? Describe the appeai'ance of the Pleia- 
des? Where is there a remarkable nebula? 4. What appearance do 
nebulae sometimes present ? 



136 NEBULA. 

with a good telescope. This appearance is probably- 
caused by a quantity of small stars, which are at so 
great a distance that one cannot be distinguished from 
another. When we are at a distance from a city or 
town, it appears like a confused mass of brick and 
stone ; but as we approach nearer and nearer, we see 
form and shape in what previously appeared without 
outlines or proportions. 

5. There is a remarkable nebula in the constellation 
Orion, but until very recently all attempts to resolve it 
into stars proved futile. The large telescope erected 
at Cambridge, Massachusetts, however, has achieved 
that victory, and almost annihilated the bounds of 
space. 

6. Nebula stars are those which have a bright 
spot in the centre, with a faint nebulous atmosphere 
around them. 

7. Annular nebula are those whose centres are 
rather dim, but the misty vapors which surround them 
appear like a ring. 

8. Planetary nebula are those which have a round 
disc, and appear like planets. They are often as 
brilhant as the planets. If we suppose them to be as 
distant as the fixed stars, their size would be enormous, 
and according to Sir John Herschel, one alone would 
fill the whole orbit of the planet Herschel. 

9. The shooting stars present an appearance at once 
interesting and remarkable. They are seen in all parts 
of the earth. As we look into the heavens, we see, as 



4. What causes this ? What is an illustration of this ? 5. What is said 
of the nebula in Orion ? 6. What are nebulae stars ? 7. What are annu- 
lar nebulse ? 8. What are planetary nebulae ? What is said of their 
size? 9. What appearance do shooting stars present ? 



SHOOTING STARS. 



137 



it were, a bright world suddenly fall and unite with 
another. The question naturally arises, What is the 
nature of these bodies, or what causes them to change 
their places ? 




NEBULA. 



9. What question naturally arises as we look into the heavens ? 
12* 



138 NEBULA. 

10. Some suppose that they are luminous gas ; 
others, that they are caused by electricity ; others, 
that they are luminous bodies, which, like the comets, 
revolve around the sun, and that their appearance can 
be calculated as well as that of the planets or comets. 

11. Though they generally shoot singly, and are but 
few in number, yet they sometimes fall in showers. 
One gentleman, who witnessed them very early in the 
morning, thus describes the phenomenon : '• I was 
called up at about three o'clock in the morning, to see 
the shooting stars, as they are called. The sight was 
grand and awful. The whole heavens appeared as if 
lighted with sky-rockets, which disappeared only by 
the light of the sun, at day-break. The meteors, 
which at one instant of time appeared as num.erous as 
stars, flew in all possible directions, except from the 
earth, toward which they all inclined more or less, and 
some of them descended perpendiculai'ly over the ves- 
sel in which we were, so that we were in constant 
expectation that they would fall on to us." These 
stars apparently filled the whole atmosphere between 
Cape Florida and the West India Islands. 

12. The most remarkable shower of meteors or fall- 
ing stars, occurred in the United States, about fourteen 
years since. " The appearance was that of fire-works 
of the most imposing grandeur ; they covered the 
entire vault of the heavens with myriads of fire-balls 
resembling sky-rockets ; their coruscations were bright, 



10. What are some of the different opinions concerning shooting stars? 
11, In v^hat manner do they falH Describe their appearance, as wit- 
nessed by a gentleman ? Were there many of these stars? 12. When, 
did the most remarkable shower of meteors fall ? Describe their ap- 
pearance. 



SHOOTING STARS OCCASIONED BY ELECTRICITY. 139 

gleaming, and incessant, and they fell as thick as the 
flakes in the early snows of December. 

13. " To the splendors of this celestial exhibition, 
the most brilliant sky-rockets and fire-works of art 
bear less relation than the twinkling of the most tiny 
star to the broad glare of the sun. The whole heavens 
seemed in motion, and suggested to some the awful 
grandeur of the image employed in the Apocalypse 
upon the opening of the sixth seal, when the ' stars of 
heaven fell unto the earth, even as a fig-tree casteth 
her untimely figs, when she is shaken by a mighty 
wind.' 

14. " One part consisted of phosphoric lines ; the 
second of fire-balls, that, darting across the sky, left a 
track behind them ; the third, of luminous bodies, 
which remained stationary for a long time in the 
heavens." 

15. An Italian thinks that these appearances are oc- 
casioned by electricity, because when he was walking 
one evening with a friend, he " observed that as a shoot- 
ing star approached them, it became larger and larger, 
but disappeared just before it reached them. When it 
went away, their faces, hands, and clothes became 
suddenly illuminated with a diffused light. It was at- 
tended .with no noise. 

16. " During their surprise at this appearance, a 
servant informed them that he had seen a light shine 
suddenly in the garden, especially on the streams of 
water which he was throwing on the garden. He 



13. How do sky-rockets compare with celestial meteors ? To what 
scenes are they similar? 14. Of what did the different parts consist? 
15. By what are these occasioned ? Why ? 16. What facts were com 
raunicated to thera ? 



140 NEBULA. 

also observed that a quantity of electric matter had 
collected about his kite, which had the appearance of 
a falling star. He saw a kind of halo which accompa- 
nied the kite as it changed its place, and left glimmer- 
ings of light." 

17. The theory of Professor Olmsted concerning 
shooting stars, is, " that the meteors proceeded from a 
nebulous body which revolved around the sun in an 
elliptical orbit in six months. He says that the me- 
teors are supposed to consist of combustible matter, 
because they are seen to take fire and to burn in the 
atmosphere. They are known to be very light, be- 
cause, though they fall tow^ard the earth with immense 
velocity, few, if any, ever reach the earth, but are 
arrested in the air like a wad fired from a piece of 
artillery. 

18. "Some of them are inferred to be bodies of com- 
paratively GREAT SIZE, aud amount in diameter to 
seven hundred feet, because they are seen under so 
large an angle while they are at a great distance from 
the spectator. These small, light, combustible bodies 
exist together, and compose a large nebulous body 
which emits its rays every year." 

19. There is another very beautiful phenomenon 
called Aurora Borealis, or northern lights. These 
are bright lights which appear in the heavens generally 
during the winter months. They shoot forth with 
every degree of brilliancy, in every variety of form, 
figure, and color. They sometimes shine with a white 



17. What is Professor Olmsted's theory concerning shooting stars? 
Of what do meteors consist ? What is their nature? 18. What is said 
of their size ? Why ? What do these small bodies compose ? 19. What 
are the northern lights ? Describe their color and form 1 



AURORA BOREALIS. 141 

light, then again are red, orange, and present every tint 
of the rainbow. 

20. The Aurora Borealis is composed of real clouds, 
which are formed of very thin, luminous matter, which 
proceed from the north, and are arranged in parallel 
lines or columns. 

21. The Aurora Borealis is said to be the effect of 
ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. When clectricity is trans- 
mitted, or passes through thin, light air, it exhibits a 
bright, luminous appearance, the same as in the above 
phenomenon. The more elevated the atmosphere is 
above the surface, the lighter it is ; hence the northern 
lights are discharges of electricity through this light air 
in the upper parts of this atmosphere, and present light, 
luminous appearances. 

22. Many theories have been advanced to explain 
the cause of these interesting lights. The most popu- 
lar is, that they are owing to the electricity of the 
earth, which is excited in a peculiar manner. 

23. They are called northern lights, because they 
are visible mostly in the northern hemisphere. In the 
Shetland Islands, they are called " merry dancers," and 
are always seen in clear, cold evenings. 

20. What is the nature of the northern h'ghts ? 21. What produces the 
Aurora Borealis ? Explain this principle ? 22. Have other theories been 
advanced to explain this? 23. Why are they thus called? What is 
another name for them ? 



142 ATTRACTION FORCE OF GRAVITY. 



CHAPTER XII. 

A.TTRACTION— FORCE OF GRAVITY. 

L The query often arises, Why do not the sun and 
all the planets fall to the earth? Such would have 
been the case long time ago, if there had not existed a 
force throughout nature called the force of gravity, 
which sustained them in their orbits, and prevented 
their fall. 

2. By gravity, or force of gravity, we mean that 
influence by which every body and particle of matter 
are attracted to every other body and particle of matter. 

3. This law of attraction or gravitation extends to 
all bodies on the earth, to the moon, planets, and the 
sun itself. It is proportioned to the quantity of matter 
that the body contains. All bodies tend to the centre 
of the earth. It is the force of gravity that produces 
this effect. 

4. This principle was discovered by Sir Isaac New- 
ton, in 1687. As he was sitting in his garden, one day, 
he observed an apple fall to the ground. He had a 
very inquisitive mind, one that was always thirsting 
for information, and he was anxious to find why the 
apple fell. He was not only interested in facts, but he 
sought to learn the primitive causes that produced 
them. 

What is the subject of chapter twelfth ? 1. What query often arises ? 
What has prevented this? 2. What is meant by gravity ? 3. What is 
the extent of this law ? To what is it proportioned 1 Where do all 
bodies tend ? Why ? 4. By whom and when was this law discovered? 
By what means ? 



CENTRIFUGAL AAD CENTKIPETAL FORCE. 143 

5. From the simple fact that an apple fell to the 
ground, this learned man discovered that there was a 
great fundamental law existing in nature, that would 
apply to the movements of all bodies, and even to the 
earth and planets. 

6. When we drop a stone from one hand, the stone 
falls to the ground, because it is attracted to the earth. 
The earth is also attracted to the stone, but it is so 
much larger than the stone, that its motion or move- 
ment is not perceptible. 

7. The power of attraction is greatest at the surface 
of the earth, and it decreases upward as the square of 
the distance from the centre of the earth increases. It 
decreases downward according to the distance. 

8. When we speak of the weight of bodies, we 
mean that gravity or force by which they are attracted 
to each other. If there was no air, all bodies would 
be the same with respect to weight. 

9. The force that, draws a body to the centre is 
called centripetal force. That which influences it to 
move in a straight line from the centre, is called cen- 
trifugal force. When both of these forces are ex- 
erted, the body moves in a circle, as is the case with 
the planets. 

10. Force of gravity would tend to bring the planets 
to the earth, while centrifugal force tends to make them 
move in a straight line ; hence they move in a circle 
or in an ellipse. 

5. What did Sir Isaac Newton leara from the falling of the apple ? 
6. Explain this as applied to the stone? 7. Where is this power the 
greatest? 8. What is meant by weight '? 9. What is the centripetal 
force ? What is the centrifugal force ? Ho vv do these operate together 1 
10. Explain this, as applied to the planets 



144 



TELESCOPE. 








THE TELESCOPE. 



REFRACTING TELESCOPES. 145 



CHAPTER XIII. 

TELESCOPES. 

1. When we look into the heavens with the naked 
eye, the stars appear hke small points, and countless 
multitudes are veiled from our sight. It is only by the 
aid of the telescope that we can ascertain their rela- 
tive magnitudes, compute their distances, or gain cor- 
rect ideas concerning them. 

2. Not only the hosts of stars, but many of our 
planets, are so distant in the depths of space that they 
are invisible without the use of this instrument. It is, 
therefore, important that a brief explanation of it should 
he given. 

3. Telescopes are of two kinds, refracting and re- 
flecting. In the refracting telescope there is generally 
one large glass for the purpose of collecting the rays 
of light from the object. This is called the lens, or 
object-glass. There is also another at the opposite 
end of the instrument, which reflects an image to the 
eye. This is called the eye-glass. 

4. Reflecting telescopes form their images by a 
concave reflector or mirror, called a speculum. The 
observer stands with his back to the object, and looks 
into the instrument to see the image. 

Wliat is the subject of chapter thirteenth ? 1. How do the stars ap- 
pear to the naked eye 1 What is the use of the telescope ? 2. Are the 
stars above obscured ? What is then important ? 3. What are the two 
kinds of telescopes 1 Describe the refracting telescope? 4. Describe 
the reflecting telescope ? 
13 



146 TELESCOPES. 

5. The MAGNIFYING powcr of telescopes depends on 
the size of the lens or speculum, as compared with the 
eye. The telescope does not manufacture new rays 
of light, but it gathers or collects large quantities into 
a small space, so that they are rendered visible to us. 

6. If the rays of light which proceed fro-m any body 
are not brought to a point, called the focus, we do not 
see the body. 

7. As we look around us, we discover a variety of 
objects. The reason why we see at all, is because the 
rays of light from all parts of the objects pass through 
the PUPIL or opening in our eyes, and are reflected to 
the back part of the eye, which is called the retina. 

8. The construction of the telescope may appear 
comparatively simple, but there are many difficulties 
which are not easily obviated. In the refracting tele- 
scope, frequently some of the rays of light are collected 
and brought to a focus sooner than others. Sometimes 
the light is separated or decomposed into its component 
parts ; hence some rays are refracted more than others, 
and the image is confused and indistinct. This can be 
remedied by constructing the lens of two different 
kinds of thin glass. It is then called an achromatic 
lens, because the word means without color, and the 
image reflected has none. 

9. Another difficulty is a want of light. The ob- 
ject-glass is oftentimes small, because it is extremely 

5. On what does the magnifymg power of telescopes depend ? What 
is the province of the telescope? 6. What is necessary in order to en- 
able us to see an object? 7. What enables us to see? 8. Is the con- 
struction of the telescope simple ? What are some of the difficulties 
found in refracting telescopes ? How can the latter be remedied ? 
What is it then called ? Why ? 9. What is another difficulty '? What 
is the cause of this ? 



REFLECTING TELESCOPES. 147 

difficult to obtain good glass for large ones. Only the 
rays which pass through the centre are visible. So 
utterly impossible was it for opticians to procure a 
lens of sufficient size from pure glass, that many con- 
structed their lenses out of thin glass, in which they 
enclosed transparent sulphur and charcoal, and thereby 
rendered the expense of the telescope much less. 

10. A number of telescopes have been, and are, much 
celebrated. Dr. William Herschel once constructed a 
large reflecting telescope which was forty feet long ; 
the great speculum was four feet in diameter, and 
weighed two thousand and eighteen pounds. This 
great telescope was surrounded by a very heavy frame- 
w^ork, and remained some time ; but the frame decayed, 
and it was finally taken down, and another telescope 
of twenty feet in length was erected in its place. 

11. Another large reflecting telescope has been con- 
structed, by Lord Rosse, of England. The speculum 
is six feet in diameter, and weighs four tons ; the tube 
is fifty-six feet in length. This is placed in the open 
air, and is surrounded on all sides by a large frame. 
This telescope is so powerful, that stars are visible 
through it whose distance is so great that it takes light 
sixty thousand years, to pass from them to the earth. 
There is a very large telescope in the observatory of 
Pulkova, Russia, under the care of Struve, who has 
done much toward prom.ulgating the science of Astron- 
omy. There is also another large telescope under the 
care of Dr. Madler, at Dorpat, Russia. 

9. What course did some adopt to remove this evil? 10. Describe 
Dr. Herschel's large telescope? What became of it? 11. Who con- 
structed another large telescope ? Describe this ? What other tele- 
scopes are celebrated ? 



148 TELESCOPES. 

12. In the reflecting telescope, the speculum or re- 
flector is made of metal. If glass were used, a double 
image of the stars would be reflected. It is said that 
when the great speculum of Lord Rosse's telescope 
was cast, it took about four months to anneal or cool it, 
before it could be used. It was cooled slowly, in order 
to prevent its breaking or even cracking. 

13. The telescope in the cut is a correct representa- 
tion of Professor Mitchell's, which is at the new ob- 
servatory erected at Cincinnati, in 1844. The tube of 
the telescope is about seventeen feet in length. The 
object-glass at the extremity of the tube is twelve 
inches in diameter, and is composed of two lenses, one 
of flint glass, and the other of crown glass. This, as 
has been before mentioned, is called a double achro- 
matic glass, and reflects a clear and distinct image. 
The balls near the observer's hands are spheres of 
brass filled with lead, and are connected by chains with 
the place where the tube rests, for the purpose of bal- 
ancing it. So perfect is the machinery by which it is 
retained in its place, or moved in almost any direction, 
that Professor Mitchell says even a child a year old has 
strength enough to direct it to any part of the heavens. 
Its weight is two thousand five hundred pounds, and it 
will magnify with a power of fourteen hundred. 

14. A refracting telescope does not require so large a 
lens as the reflecting, because in the latter much light 
is lost when reflected from a mirror, and therefore 

12. Of what is the speculum of the reflecting telescope composed ? 
Why is not glass used ? What is said of the speculum of Lord Rosse's 
telescope? 13. What does the cut represent? Where is it situated? 
When erected ? Describe this instrument. What is said of its machin- 
ery ? Its weight? Its magnifying power? 14. What is a difference 
between the refracting and reflecting ? 



THK FINDER. 149 

more must be reflected, in order to see the object 
desired. 

15. In order to find a particular star or planet with 
facilit}^ there is a small telescope attached to the large 
refractor, as is represented in the cut, above the head 
of the observei'. This is called the finder, and as it 
does not magnify much, a star is readily seen through 
it. This telescope was manufactured in Munich. It is 
one of the most powerful in the country, and cost nine 
thousand five hundred dollars. The observatory or 
house in which it is situated, cost about six thousand 
dollars ; it is built on the summit of a hill called Mount 
Adams. Its corner stone was laid by John Quincy 
Adams, on the ninth of November, 1843. 

15. In what way is the star found, sometimes'? Why is this a conve- 
nient apparatus ? Where was this telescope manufactured 1 What was 
its cost ? What was the expense of the observatory 1 By whom and 
when was its corner stone laid ? 

13* 



150 DIFFERENT ASTRONOMERS. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

DIFFERENT ASTRONOMERS. 

COPERNICUS. 

1. Copernicus was born in Prussia, in 1473. He went 
through a regular course of study, and took a degree of 
Doctor of Arts and Medicine in the university which he 
attended. 

2. In early life, he evinced a decided taste for mathematics 
and astronomy, and when only twenty-three years of age, 
had the reputation of a skillful observer of the heavens, and 
was appointed a professor. 

3. His father designed him to be a minister, in which 
profession he served for miany years, so that for a time his 
astronomical studies were interrupted or suspended. 

4. At that period, it was the opinion of all the philosophers 
of the age that the earth was the centre of the universe, and 
that the changes of day and the seasons were produced by 
the revolution of the planets around it. 

5. Copernicus was not satisfied with these ideas, and de- 
clared that the earth revolved around the sun from west to 
east. He collected the facts, and made all possible observa- 
tions to substantiate his doctrines. He computed tables of the 
motions of all the planets, which were found to be much 
more correct than those which had been made previously ; 

What is the subject of chapter fourteenth'? 1. Where was Coperni- 
cus born? What is said of his attainments? 2. For what studies did 
he manifest interest ? 3. For what did his father design him? Did he 
pursue this profession ? 4. What were the prevailing opinions respecting 
the earth and sun, at that time ? What course did Copernicus take iu 
reference to this ? 



COPERNICUS. 



151 



but for thirty-six years he did not dare to publish his new 
ideas to the world. 




COPERNICUS. 

6. The Church of Rome, which at that time ruled Eu= 
rope, were very bitter in their opposition to these new here- 
sies, as they termed them, and if Copernicus had not died 
suddenly, he would probably have met with as severe a fate 
as that of Galileo, about twenty years after his death. 

7. The house in Thorn, where he was born, is still pre- 
served as a relic. Copernicus was very much esteemed by 
all his friends and acquaintances. An attempt was made at 



5. How long before Copernicus published his ideas ? 6. What is 
said of the Church of Rome ? What would have resulted from it ? 
7. What relic is preserved of him ? How was he regarded by his 
friends ? 



152 



DIFFERENT ASTRONOMERS. 



a certain time to satirize him, or bring him into contempt, 
by a dramatic author, before a public audience, on the stage. 
This actor introduced his theory of the earth's motion, but it 
was received with great indignation. 

8. A colossal statue was erected at Warsaw, as a tribute 
to his memory. 




GALILEO. 



1. Galileo was born in Pisa, in 1564, of an ancient and 
noble family. His father was a man of superior talents, and 



7. What illustration is mentioned of the esteem with which Coperni- 
cus was regai'ded by his friends ? 8. What tribute was paid to his mem- 
ory ? 1, Where and when was Galileo bora? What is said of hia 



father 1 



GALILEO. 153 

designed to educate his son to be a physician. Though the 
son applied himself diligently to the study of medicine, yet 
his mind was not confined to books. 

2. He had a great fondness for painting and music, yet 
his natural forte was mathematics, which he pursued in 
secret, for a time. 

3. He discovered that the vibrations of all pendulums, 
even of different lengths, were performed in equal times. 
This idea was suggested by his observing the motions of a 
lamp which was suspended from the roof of the cathedral 
in which he worshipped. He also ascertained the beating 
of the pulse from this fact, and counted it by the vibration 
of a pendulum. 

4. His father had positively forbidden him to study mathe- 
matics; but, as he perceived the strong inclination of his 
son for these pursuits, he gave his consent, and his son was 
soon on the road to fame. 

5. He was introduced to the first mathematician of the 
day, and was soon appointed lecturer in the university in his 
native town, and afterward professor of mathematics. 

6. He discovered the thermometer, an instrument by which 
we can measure the expansive or condensive heat of the 
atmosphere, and in 1609 discovered the telescope. H^e had 
heard of the magnifying power of an instrument that had 
been constructed in Italy, that greatly enlarged objects, and 
made distant objects appear much nearer, and he thought he 
would try his skill, and see what he could do. 

7. He fitted a spectacle glass to each end of a leaden 
tube, one of which was round, or convex, and the other 

1. Did Galileo relish the study of medicine ? 2. What were his natu- 
ral inclinations ? 3. What was one of his discoveries ? What suggested 
this idea? What other fact did he learn? 4. Did the father yield to 
the wishes of his son ? 5. What advancement did he make in mathe- 
matics? G. What other discoveries did he make'? Of what had he 
received information ? 7. What experiment did he attempt 1 



154 DIFFERENT ASTRONOMERS. 

hollow, or concave. By applying his eye to one end, he 
discovered that objects were enlarged. He carried this 
instrument to Venice, and presented it to the senate. Great 
was the interest and almost enthusiasm which prevailed. He 
was elected professor for life, and had a salary of one thou- 
sand florins. 

8. This instrument magnified only three times ; he made 
another which magnified eight times, and at length made one 
which magnified thirty times. 

9. He now proceeded to examine the heavens. By means 
of this instrument, he discovered inequalities in the moon's 
surface, the difference between the planets and the fixed 
stars, and resolved nebulae into distinct and numerous stars. 

10. He discovered that Jupiter was attended by four moons 
or satellites. He saw the dark spots on the sun's disc, from 
which he calculated that the sun moved on its axis in twenty- 
eight days. He discovered the rings of Saturn, and, not fully- 
understanding their nature, described the planet as a triple 
star, each retaining its relative position with respect to the 
other. Soon after this, he made known his belief in the Co- 
pernican system, that the sun was the centre of the universe. 

11. On account of this belief or avowal he was greatly 
persecuted, and summoned to Rome, to have a trial before 
the Inquisition. This was a body of men who had great 
power in their hands, and who met together for the purpose 
of trying persons convicted of crime. The punishments 
which they inflicted were of the most severe and cruel kind. 
The Pope and the Inquisitors met, and decreed that if Galileo 
would agree neither to teach, defend, nor publish his senti- 

7. What was Galileo's success ? 8. How much did the first telescope 
magnify ? Second ? Last ? 9. What discoveries did he make by 
means of the telescope? 10. What did he learn respecting Jupiter 7 
The sun? Saturn? What was his final declaration? 11. What was 
the result of this avowal ? What is meant by the Inquisition ? What 
was the decree of the Pope and the Inquisitors ? 



GALILEO TRIED BEFORE THE INclUISITION. 155 

ments, or, in other words, if he would renounce them as un- 
true, he should be acquitted and released. If he would not, 
he should be cast into prison. 

12. They erroneously supposed that the Bible declared 
that the earth stood still, and that he must certainly be in the 
wrong. He was silent for a time, and their fears were 
quieted ; but in about ten or twelve years he again published 
his views, in the form of a dialogue. One person repre- 
sented the Copernican system, and another the opposite, or 
the Ptolemaic system. 

13. This enraged his enemies to such a degree that he 
was again summoned before the Inquisition. He was found 
guilty by them of heresy, and condemned to imprisonment 
and death. He was an old man, bowed with infirmities, and 
he renounced the opinions he had taught and published. 

14. The form of his renouncement was as follows : ''With 
a sincere heart and unfeigned faith, I abjure, curse, and 
detest the said errors and heresies, that the earth moves, etc. 
I swear that I will never in future say or assert any thing, 
verbally or in writing, which may give rise to a similar sus- 
picion against me. I, Galileo Galilei, have abjured the above 
with my own hand." 

15. It is said that when Galileo rose from his knees, he 
stamped with his foot on the ground, and whispered to a 
friend, " It does move, though !" 

16. He was confined several days in the prison, and was 
then allowed to retire to his country seat, where he lived in 
great seclusion, as he was not permitted to enjoy the company 
of his friends. He, however, pursued his studies diligently, 
and made many new discoveries about the moon. 

12. On what did the Pope and the Inquisitors base their opinions? 
What did Galileo do in ten or twelve years from this time? 13. How did 
this affect his enemies ? What did he do? What excuse is there for him? 
14. What was the form of his renouncement? 15. What did he say after- 
ward ? 16. What became of him ? Did his interest in studv diminish 1 



156 



DIFFERENT ASTRONOMERS. 



17. He was struck with blindness, about three years be- 
fore his death, and so strong was the prejudice that existed 
against him, that he was scarcely permitted to make his will, 
or to be buried in consecrated ground. Thirty years after, 
ward, he was re-interred under a splendid monument, which 
now covers his remains. On this monument a bust of 
Galileo was placed, together with figures of geometry and 
astronomy. His house is preserved as a relic of departed 
worth. He was seventy-eight years of age when he died. 




SIR ISAAC NEWTON. 



1. Sir Isaac Newton was born nearly two hundred 
years after Copernicus, in the year 1642, in Lincolnshire, 
England. 



17. What affliction did Galileo meet 1 How strong was the prejudice 
against him? How did the current of feeling change? What was his 
age when he died ? 1. When and where was Newton born ? 



SIR ISAAC NEWTON. 157 

2. Newton's early education was limited, and he was 
quite an idle lad, but very soon became the first in his class. 
His greatest taste was for mechanical pursuits. He made a 
model of a windmill, which was turned sometimes by a 
mouse inside of it, which he called the miller ; it was turned 
also by the wind. He made a carriage which was moved 
by the person who sat in it, and a water-clock that kept 
accurate time. 

3. His mother gave him employment on her farm ; but he 
spent his time in reading, while a servant executed his com- 
mands. As soon as his mother perceived the strong bent of 
his mind, she sent him to the university, where he might 
gratify his inclinations. He soon became a proficient in 
mathematics, and made many inventions in that branch of 
study. 

4. Before he was twenty-three years of age, he decom- 
posed light into seven different colors, and began to construct 
a reflecting telescope. He also discovered that the attraction 
of gravitation caused every body to fall to the centre of the 
earth. 

5. He was elected a member of the Royal Society in 
Cambridge, and had many honors conferred on him. He 
made many investigations in chemistry ; but the results of 
his studies for years were lost by means of a fire which was 
caused by his favorite dog Diamond. It is said that when he 
ascertained the extent of his loss, instead of being angry, he 
only exclaimed " O Diamond ! Diamond ! thou little knowest 
the mischief thou hast done !" 

6. The society of Newton was much courted in London, 

2. What were Newton's early advantages ? What was his peculiar 
taste 7 What are some of the things which he constructed ? 3. How 
did his mother employ him ? Did he like this ? What did she finally 
consent for him to do ? 4. What were some of his discovenes ? 
5. What honors were confeiTed on him ? W^hat mischief was done by his 
dog ? How did he resent it ? 6. How was he regarded by his friends ? 
14 



158 



DIFFERENT ASTRONOMERS. 



by those who were in rank and power. He was buried with 
much pomp in Westminster Abbey, and a monument was 
erected to his memory. There is a portrait of him in almost 
every room in Trinity College, Cambridge, and a large statue 
of him in the chapel. 




SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL. 

1. Sir William Herschel was born at Hanover, in Ger- 
many, in 173S. His father was a musician, and instructed 
his sons in the same profession. At the age of fourteen, Sir 
William accompanied a regiment to England, as one of the 
band of guards. He spent several years in teaching music 
and acquiring different languages. He was quite a proficient 
in music, and it is said that at one time he gave a concert, at 
which he played a quartet alone upon a harp and two 
horns, one fastened to each shoulder. 

6. How did Newton's friends express their reverence for him ? 
1 . Where and when was Sir William Herschel born '? What was his 
father's profession ? What did Herschel do when fourteen years old ? 
To what extent did he excel in music ? 



SIR WILLIAM HER3CHEL. 159 

2. When about thirty years of age, his attention was 
turned to astronomy. He borrowed a telescope of a friend, 
and, as he could not afford to purchase one, he attempted to 
construct one for himself. 

3. He first made a reflecting telescope, five feet in length, 
and from this he continued until he constructed one forty feet 
in length. 

4. In 1781 he discovered the planet which bears his name. 
He was then appointed private astronomer to King George 
III., which station he occupied as long as he lived. He 
made many brilliant discoveries, and gained great reputation 
and honor. 

5. He discovered the sixth and seventh satellites of Saturn, 
and made many observations on the planet, also the six satel- 
lites of the planet Herschel. He discovered that the Milky 
Way, which appeared like a misty haze, was a collection of 
vast worlds and universes, each of which was as extensive 
as our own, and that the nebulae were composed of stars ; 
he also computed the magnitude of the stars. 

6. Herschel made tables of all the stars in the northern 
hemisphere, and his only son, Sir John Herschel, an astrono- 
mer of much note and celebrity, is now at Cape of Good 
Hope, in Africa, to make observations of the stars of the 
southern hemisphere. Herschel was assisted in his observa- 
tions by his sister. Miss Caroline Herschel, who was distin- 
guished for the correctness of her observations and mathe- 
matical calculations. 

2. When was the attention of Herschel directed to astronomy ? What 
did he resolve to do ? 3. What was the result ? 4. What was his first 
discovery '? What appointment was conferred on him ? 5. Name some 
of his discoveries. 6 What tables did he make ? What is said of his 
son 1 By whom was the father assisted ? For what was she distin- 
guished ? 



160 



DIFFERENT ASTRONOMERS. 




HON. WALTER FOLGER. 



WALTER FOLGER. 161 



HON. WALTER FOLGER. 



1. Walter Folger was born on the island of Nantucket, in 
Massachusetts, in the year 1768. He never attended any 
institution of learning except that where the simple rudiments 
of education were taught ; but he had superior natural abili- 
ties, a mind which thirsted for information, great powers of 
application, and continuity of thought. 

2. He possessed in a high degree the mathematical, me- 
chanical, inventive, and astronomical talents. During the 
French Revolution he wished to acquire the French language ; 
he therefore procured the necessary books, translated the 
New Testament, and acquired much information in the arts 
and sciences from the French encyclopedias. 

3. For many years he employed most of his leisure time, 
which was principally taken from his sleep, in study. When 
about tv/enty-two years of age, he commenced making an 
astronomical clock, and completed it in two years, which was 
in 1790. Since that year it has kept perfect time. 

4. While lying on a sick bed, he learned lunar observa- 
tions, and was the first one in the country who taught the 
method of casting longitude from them. ^• 

5. The plan of the whole machinery of Lis clock was 
matured and completed in his own mind, before he com- 
menced to put it together. It is made of brass and steel. It 
keeps the date of the year correctly, and the figures change 
as the year changes. The sun and moon, or balls that repre- 
sent them, appear to rise and set in the clock precisely as 
those in the heavens ; also the sun's place in the ecliptic, and 
the time that he rises and sets, are indicated. 

1 , Where and when was Mr. Folger born ? What were his early ad- 
vantages? What had he naturally? 2. What talents did he possess? 
Give an example of his perseverance. 3. What did he construct, at the 
age of twenty-two years? 4. Did his mind ever rest? 5. Give a de- 
scription of his clock ? 

14* 



162 DIFFERENT ASTRONOMERS. 

6. The clock keeps account of the motion of the moon's 
nodes around the ecliptic, which require eighteen years and 
two hundred and twenty-five days for the revolution ; it shows 
both the sun's and moon's declination. The wheel that keeps 
the date of the year revolves around once in one hundred 
years. It remains still ten years ; at the expiration of each 
ten years, it starts regularly one notch. 

7. This clock is considered by those who have witnessed 
its performances to be one of the greatest specimens of me- 
chanical ingenuity in the country. It required not only me- 
chanical skill, but a perfect knowledge of the principles of 
astronomy, to plan and execute its machinery. 

8. In the year 1819, when about fifty-four years of age, 
he constructed entirely himself a reflecting telescope. With 
it he has been enabled to discover spots on the planet Venus, 
which had never been discovered by Herschel's large tele- 
scope ; it therefore must have been of great power. 

9. He was six years in the Senate, six years Judge of the 
Court of Common Pleas, four years Representative in Con- 
gress, and twenty years an attorney at law. He tried the 
most responsible and difficult cases against powerful oppo- 
nents, with uncemmon success. 

10. He is now about eighty-two years of age, and is a 
living witness of what can be accomplished with energy, per- 
severance, and determination. He amuses himself by solving 
mathematical problems arithmetically, keeps accurate ac- 
counts of the weather, wind, etc., making his observations in 
the morning, at noon, and at night. 

6. What are some of the different motions of which Mr. Folger's 
clock keeps account ? In what manner is the date of the year kept ? 
7. Of what is this clock considered a specimen? What did its execution 
require? 8. What did he construct in 1819? What did he discover 
through this? 9. What are some of the offices which he filled with 
credit? 10. What is his present age? Of what is he a witness? la 
what manner does he spend his time ? 



PROFESSOR OLMSTED. 



163 




PROFESSOR OLMSTED. 

By the permission of Professor Olmsted, the following 
biography is copied from the Yale Literary Magazine : 

1. Denison Olmsted was born at East Hartford, June 
eighteenth, 1791. His ancestors were among the first set- 
tlers of the city of Hartford, having emigrated from the 
county of Essex, in England. His father was a respectable 
farmer, of moderate, though competent fortune, but was cut 
off in the meridian of life, when this his third son was only a 
year old. 

2. The days of his childhood were divided between the 
village school and the labors of the farm, to which he was 
very early trained. At the age of thirteen, he was placed 



1. Where was Professor Olmsted born? Who were his ancestors 1 
2. Where was his childhood spent ? 



164 DIFFERENT ASTRONOMERS. 

in a country store, to be educated as a merchant; but, at his 
own solicitation, he was permitted, at sixteen, to exchange 
the life of a clerk for that of a student. He entered Yale 
College in 1809, and graduated in 1813. The two following 
years were passed in New London, in the instruction of 
Union School, a select academy for boys. In 1815 he re- 
turned to college, and discharged the office of tutor the two 
succeeding years, pursuing at the same time the study of 
theology, under the instruction of President Dwight. In 
1817 he received and accepted the appointment of Professor 
of Chemistry in the University of North Carolina, entering 
upon the duties of the office near the close of the year 1818, 
having occupied the interval in the laboratory of Yale Col- 
lege, as a private pupil of Professor Silliman. 

3. In this situation he spent the seven years following, 
during which time he commenced, under the patronage of 
the legislature, a geological survey of North Carolina — an 
enterprise peculiarly worthy of note, as being the first attempt 
of the kind ever made in our country. Pie published the 
first scientific account of the gold mines of North Carolina, 
and made and published some original experiments on the 
illuminating gas from cotton seed, a new and copious source 
of light which, it is believed, will one day come into exten- 
sive use in the manufacture of gas lights. 

4. In 1825, on the decease of Professor Button, Mr. Olm- 
sted was elected to the professorship of mathematics and 
natural philosophy in Yale College, since changed to that of 
natural philosophy and astronomy, which station he still 
occupies. 

5. Professor Olmsted's career as an author began in 1817, 
with the publication in the New Haven Religious Intelligencer 

2. Where did Professor Olmsted receive his education ? What im- 
portant stations did he occupy ? 3. What was his situation for the next 
seven years? What important statistics did he publish? 4. What ap- 
pointment did he receive in 1825 ? 



PUBLICATIOXS OF PROFESSOR OLMSTED, 165 

of a series of essays, entitled, •• Thoughts on the Clerical 
Profession.'' The same year he prepared a memoir of Pres- 
ident Dwight for the Philadelphia Portfolio. In 1824 and '5 
he furnished the papers above mentioned, -' On the Gold 
Mines of North Carolina,'" and on the " Illuminating Gas," 
etc., for the American Journal of Science. Since that time, 
he has been a frequent contributor to that able and valuable 
quarterly. Fie has also furnished for it, as well as for the 
Christian Spectator, the American Quarterly Register, and 
the New Englander, numerous reviews and biographical 
sketches. 

6. His '-'Introduction to Natural Philosophy'' was pub- 
lished in 1831, and the "Introduction to Astronomy" in 
1839. The substance of the latter was given to the public 
in 1840, in a handsome 12mo., in the popular and attractive 
form of a series of letters addressed to a lady. His last 
work, if we except the articles in the Quarterly Register and 
New Englander, and a small work, entitled, " Rudiments of 
Natural Philosophy and Astronomy," published in 1844, was 
the life and writings of his gifted and lamented pupil and 
friend, Ebenezer Porter Mason, a name which bade so fair 
to be one of the brightest stars in the sky of that science 
which both so deeply and so passionately loved. 

5. What are some of the publications issued by Professor Olmsted ? 
6 . What other works did he write ? What was his last work ? 



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